Antiquities of the state of New York. Being the results of extensive original surveys and explorations, with a supplement on the antiquities of the West..

*

ANTIQUITIES

STATE OF NEW YORK.

BEING THE RESULTS OF EXTENSIVE ORIGINAL SURVEYS
AND EXPLORATIONS,

WITH

A SUPPLEMENT

ANTIQUITIES OF THE WEST;

ILLUSTRATED BY FOURTEEN QUARTO PLATES AND EIGHTY
ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD :

By E. G. SQUIEB, M. A.,

Toreign Member of the British Archaeological Association; Member of the AmeriM

Ethnological Society ; the Pennsylvania Academy of Natural Sciences ; the

New York Historical Society ; the Massachusetts Historical

Society ; the Historical and Antiquarian

Society of Tennessee, etc., etc.

FEOM THE "SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE.

BUFFALO:

GEO. H . DERBY AND CO.

1851.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1851, by

E. G. SQUIER,

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern
District of New York.

Stereotyped by C. DAVISON, 33 Goto St., N- \.

C. A. ALVORD, PRINTER,
29 Gold-st., N. Y.

PREFACE

THE investigations, the results of which are embodied
in the following pages, were undertaken in the autumn
of 1848, under the joint auspices of the Historical So
ciety of New York, and the Smithsonian Institution of
Washington. They were originally published in the
Second Volume of the " SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS
TO KNOWLEDGE," in a form far too costly to be gene
rally accessible. But as it is the design of this Insti
tution to promote knowledge, by giving as wide a diffu
sion to new facts as possible, its officers have liberally
assented to their republication in the present form, and
permitted the use of the original plates and engravings,
for that purpose. By this means, the work is placed
within the reach of all who are interested in the subject
of American Antiquities, at a price far below what would
have been the cost of its original production.

In preparing this edition, the author has added largely
to the original Memoir, and has also appended a supple-

IV PREFACE.

ment, containing a resume or synoptical view of the An
cient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley. This will
enable the general reader to institute all necessary
comparisons between the aboriginal remains of New
York, and those of the Western States.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I.— Introductory Observations, Page 7 to 15

II.— Earth Works, Inclosures, etc., 15 to 85

St. Lawrence County, 15

Jefferson County, 16

Oswego County, 30

Onondaga County, 31

Madison County, 45

Otsego County, 46

Chenango County 46

Cayuga County, 48

Chemung County, 53

Ontario County, . 55

Monroe County, 56

Livingston County 61

Genesee County, 64

Orleans County, 71

Erie County, 72

Chautauque County, 81

Montgomery County, 82

III.— Palisaded Inclosures 85 to 97

IV.— Mounds, Bone-heaps, etc., 97 to 116

V. — Implements, Ornaments, etc., 116 to 137

VI.— Observations on the Probable Origin of the

Ancient Monuments of New York, 137 to 142

VIL— Ancient Works in New Hampshire, Penn
sylvania, Northern Ohio, etc., 142 to 150

Vin.— General Character of Indian Defences, .... 150 to 164

IX.— Stone Heaps ; Stones of Memorial, Stone

Circles> 164 to 177

VI CONTENTS.

CHAPTER X.— Comparison of the Defensive Structures of
the American Aborigines with those of
the Pacific Islanders, Celts, etc., etc.,. . . 177 to 189
XI.— Sepulchral Mounds in Mexico, Central

America, etc, 189 to 195

XII. — Sepulchral Monuments of the Ancient

World, 195 to 207

XIII.— Probable Funeral Rites of the Mound

Builders, 207 to 213

XIV.— The Mounds not general Burial Places;

Great Indian Cemeteries of the West, . . 213 to 225
XV.— Aboriginal Sacred Inclosures ; Temples of
the North American Indians ; Temples
of Mexico, Central America, and Peru ;
Temples of the Polynesian Islanders,
Hindus, etc ; Primitive Temples of the
British Islands ; Symbolism of Temples, 225 to 267
XVI.— Use of Copper and Silver by the American

Aborigines, 267 to 293

SUPPLEMENT.

Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley ; General Ob
servations ; Inclosures for Defence ; Sacred Inclosures;
Mounds of Sepulture ; of Sacrifice, etc., etc. ; Imple
ments ; Ornaments ; Sculptures, etc., etc., 293 to 343

ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS

OF THE

STATE OF NEW YORK,

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS.

THE Indian tribes found in possession of the country now
embraced within the limits of New England and the Middle
States have left few monuments to attest their former pres
ence. The fragile structures which they erected for protec
tion and defence have long ago crumbled to the earth ; and the
sites of their ancient towns and villages are indicated only by
the ashes of their long-extinguished fires, and by the few rude
relics which the plough of the invader exposes to his curious
gaze. Their cemeteries, marked in very rare instances by en
during monuments, are now undistinguishable, except where
the hand of modern improvement encroaches upon the sanc
tity of the grave. The forest-trees, upon the smooth bark of
which the Indian hunter commemorated his exploits in war, or
success in the chase — the first rude efforts toward a written
language — have withered in the lapse of time, or fallen be
neath the inexorable ax. The rock upon which the same
primitive historian laboriously wrought out his rude, but to

8 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

him significant picture, alone resists the corrosion of years.
Perhaps no people equally numerous have passed away with
out leaving more decided memorials of their former existence.
Excepting the significant names of their sonorous language,
which still attach to our mountains, lakes, and streams, little
remains to recall the memory of the departed race.

But notwithstanding the almost entire absence of monu
ments of art clearly referable to the Indian tribes discovered
in the actual possession of the region above indicated, it has
long been known that many evidences of ancient labor and skill
are to be found in the western parts of New York and Penn
sylvania, upon the upper tributaries of the Ohio, and along the
shores of Lakes Erie and Ontario. Here we find a series of
ancient earth-works, intrenched hills, and occasional mounds,
or tumuli, concerning which history is mute, and the origin of
which has been regarded as involved in impenetrable mystery.
These remains became a subject of frequent remark, as the
tide of emigration flowed westward 5 and various detached no
tices of their existence were, from time to time, made public.
No connected view of their extent or character was, however^
given to the world, until 1817, when De Witt Clinton, whose
energetic mind neglected no department of inquiry, read a
brief memoir upon the subject before the " Literary and Philo
sophical Society of New York," which was published in pamph
let form, at Albany, in 1818. Mr. Clinton in this memoir did
not profess to give a complete view of the matter ; his aim
being, in his own language, " to awaken the public mind to a
subject of great importance, before the means of investigation
were entirely lost." It consequently contains but little more
than notices of such ancient earth-works, and other interesting
remains of antiquity, as had at that time fallen under his no
tice, or of which he had received some distinct information.
Its publication was, however, without any immediate effect ;
for few individuals, at that period, felt the interest requisite, or
possessed the opportunities necessary, to the continuance of

INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 9

the investigations thus worthily commenced. Nothing further,
it is believed, appeared upon the subject, until the publication
of McCauley's History of New York, in 1828. This work
contained a chapter upon the antiquities of the State, embody
ing the essential parts of Mr. Clinton's memoir, together with
some facts of considerable interest, which had fallen under the
observation of the author himself. Within a few years, public
attention has again been directed to the subject by Mr. School-
craft, in his " Notes on the Iroquois." Some detached facts
have also been presented in local histories and publications, but
usually in so loose and vague a manner, as to be of little value
for purposes of comparison and research.

The observations of all these authorities were merely inci
dental, and were limited in their range. By none were pre
sented plans, from actual surveys, of any of the ancient works
of the State ; a deficiency which, it is evident, could not be
supplied by descriptions, however full and accurate, and with
out which it has been found impossible to institute the compar
isons requisite to correct conclusions as to the date, origin,
and probable connections of these remains. It has all along
been represented that some of the inclosures were of regular
outlines, true circles and ellipses and accurate squares — feat
ures which would imply a common origin with the vast system
of ancient earth-works of the Mississippi Valley. Submitted
to the test of actual survey, I have found that the works which
were esteemed entirely regular are the very reverse, and that
the builders, instead of constructing them upon geometrical
principles, regulated their forms entirely by the nature of the
ground upon which they were built. And I may here men
tion, that none of the ancient works of this State, of which
traces remain displaying any considerable degree of regularity,
can lay claim to high antiquity. All of them may be re
ferred, with certainty, to the period succeeding the commence
ment of European intercourse.

Mr. Clinton was unable to learn of the occurrence of any
1*

10 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

remains upon the first terrace back from the lakes, and, upon
the basis of the assumed fact of their non-existence, advanced
the opinion that the subsidence of the lakes and the formation
of this terrace had taken place since these works were erected
— a chronological period which I shall not attempt to measure
by years. This deduction has been received, I believe, by
every succeeding writer upon the subject of our antiquities,
without any attempt to verify the assumption upon which it
rests. I have, however, found that the works occur indiscrimi
nately upon the first and upon the superior terraces, as also
upon the islands of the lakes and rivers.

Misled by statements which no opportunity was afforded of
verifying, I have elsewhere, though in a guarded manner, ven
tured the opinion that the ancient remains of western New
York belonged to the same system with those of Ohio and the
West generally.* Under this hypothesis, the question whether
they were the weaker efforts of a colony, starting from the
southwestern centers, or the ruder beginnings of a people just
emerging from a nomadic state, becoming fixed in their habits,
and subsequently migrating southward, next suggested itself ;
and I gladly availed myself of the joint liberality of the Smith
sonian Institution and the Historical Society of New York, to
undertake its investigation. The results of my observations
are briefly presented in the following pages. These observa
tions extended from the county of St. Lawrence on the north,
to Chautauque on the south, embracing the counties of Jeffer
son, Oswego, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca, Ontario,
Wayne, Monroe, Livingston, Orleans, Niagara, Erie, Genesee,
and Wyoming. Throughout this entire region ancient remains
are found in considerable abundance ; they are also occasionally
found in the counties adjoining those above named, upon the
principal tributaries of the Delaware, Susquehanna, and Alle-
ghany. They are known to extend down the Susquehanna, as

* " Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," p. 1.

INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 11

far as the valley of the "Wyoming; and a single one was discov
ered as far east as Montgomery county, in the neighborhood of
Fort Plain. Some, it is said, are to be found in Canada ; but
no definite information was received of their localities. It is to
be observed that they are most numerous in sections remarkable
for their fertility of soil, their proximity to favorable hunting
and fishing grounds — in short, possessing the greatest number
of requisites to easy subsistence. They are particularly nu
merous in Jefferson county, in the vicinity of the central lakes,
in the southern part of Monroe, in Livingston, Genesee, and
Erie counties. Many are said to exist in Chautauque ; but
the lateness of the season, and the unsuspected number of re
mains elsewhere claiming attention, prevented me from exam
ining them.

In respect to the number of these remains, some estimate
may be formed from the fact that, in Jefferson county alone,
fifteen inclosures were found, sufficiently well preserved to ad
mit of being traced throughout. This is exclusive of those
(probably a greater number) which have been wholly or in part
destroyed, or of which no information could be obtained, in the
limited time allotted to the investigation of that county. It
is safe to estimate the whole number which originally existed
here at between thirty and forty — a greater number than was
before known to exist in the State. Erie county probably con
tained nearly as many. In the short period of eight weeks
devoted to the search, I was enabled to ascertain the localities
of not less than one hundred ancient works, and to visit and
make surveys of half that number. From the facts which have
fallen under my notice, I feel warranted in estimating the num
ber which originally existed in the State at from two hundred
to two hundred and fifty. Probably one half of these have been
obliterated by the plough, or so much encroached upon as to be
no longer satisfactorily traced.

Were these works of the general large dimensions of those
of the Western States, their numbers would be a just ground of

'>.;" ^°

12 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

astonishment. They are, however, for the most part, compara
tively small, varying from one to four acres — the largest not
exceeding sixteen acres in area. The embankments, too, are
slight, and the ditches shallow ; the former seldom more than
four feet in height, and the latter of corresponding proportions.
The work most distinctly marked exists in the town of Oak-
field, Genesee county ; it measures, in some places, between
seven and eight feet from the bottom of the ditch to the top
of the wall. In some cases the embankment is not more than
a foot in height, and the trench of the same depth. Lest it
should be doubted whether works so slight can be satisfactorily
traced, it may be observed, that a regular and continuous ele
vation of six inches may always be followed without difficulty.

In respect of position, a very great uniformity is to be ob
served throughout. Most occupy high and commanding sites
near the bluff edges of the broad terraces by which the country
rises from the level of the lakes. From the brows of the lime
stone ledges, where some of these works occur, in Jefferson and
Erie counties, most extensive prospects may be obtained, often
terminating in the blue belt of the lakes, distant from ten to
forty miles ; the intervening country presenting a beautiful va
riety of cleared and forest lands, dotted with houses, churches,
and villages. When found upon lower grounds, it is usually
upon some dry knoll or little hill, or where banks of streams
serve to lend security to the position. A few have been found
upon slight elevations in the midst of swamps, where dense for
ests and almost impassable marshes protected them from dis
covery and attack. In nearly all cases they are placed in close
proximity to some unfailing supply of water, near copious springs
or running streams. Gateways, opening toward these, are al
ways to be observed, and in some cases guarded passages are
also visible. These circumstances, in connection with others
not less unequivocal, indicate, with great precision, the purposes
for which these structures were erected.

It has already been mentioned that Messrs. Clinton, Yates,

INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS.

13

and Moulton, and others, have concluded, upon the assumption
that none of these works occur upon the first and second ter
races above the lakes, that the latter have subsided to their
present level since their erection. This conclusion does not
necessarily follow from the premises. Few positions susceptible
of defence, under the system practiced by all rude people, are
to be found upon either of these terraces ; the builders, conse
quently, availed themselves of the numerous headlands and
other defensible positions which border the supposed ancient
shores of the lakes, simply because they afforded the most effec
tual protection, with the least expenditure of labor.

I found an entire uniformity in the indications of occupancy,
and in the character of the remains of art discovered within
these inclosures, throughout the whole range of their occurrence.
The first feature which attracts notice, upon entering them, is
a number of pits or excavations in the earth, usually at the
points which are most elevated and dry. These pits are occa
sionally of considerable size, and are popularly called " wells,"
although nothing is more obvious than that they never could
have been designed for any such purpose. They are usually
from three to four,l)ut sometimes from six to eight feet in depth,
and of proportionate size at the top. Their purposes become
sufficiently evident upon excavation. They were the caches in
which the former occupants of these works deposited their stores.
Parched corn, now completely carbonized by long exposure, is
to be discovered in considerable abundance in many of them.
Instances fell under my notice where it had been found un
touched to the amount of bushels, in these primitive deposito
ries. Traces of the bark and thin slips of wood, by which the
deposits were surrounded, are also frequently to be found. In
many of these inclosures the sites of the ancient lodges, or cab
ins, are still to be traced. These are marked by considerable
accumulations of decomposed and carbonaceous matter — stones
much burned, charcoal and ashes mingled with the bones of an
imals, with numerous fragments of pottery, broken pipes, and

14 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

occasionally rude ornaments, such as beads of stone, bone, and
shell. The pottery, I may observe incidentally, is of very good
material, and appears to have been worked and ornamented
with considerable taste and skill. It is found in great abun
dance ; and, in many of the inclosures now under cultivation,
bushels of fragments might, if desirable, be collected without
difficulty. The material, in common with that of all the abo
riginal pottery of the North, is composed of clay tempered (if
I may use the term) with pounded quartz and shells, or with
fine sand, so as to prevent shrinkage, and resist the action of
fire. Most of it is well burned, but none exhibits any appear
ance of glazing. The pipes are mostly composed of clay, regu
larly and often fancifully moulded, and ornamented in various
ways. Some bear the form of animals, the distinctive features
of which are well preserved ; others are moulded in the shape
of the human head, or are variously fluted and dotted with reg
ular figures. They are generally of very good material, the
clay of fine quality, and well burned. Some, indeed, are so
hard, smooth, and symmetrical, as almost to induce doubts of
their aboriginal origin. Some of the terra cottas, other than
pipes, are really very creditable specimens of art, and compare
favorably with any of the productions of the aborigines which
have fallen under my notice. They are, with few exceptions,
representations of animals; with the minutest features of which,
as well as with their peculiar habits, the American Indians had,
from long observation, a thorough acquaintance.

CHAPTER II.

EARTH-WORKS, INCLOSURES, ETC.

FOR the sake of convenience and easy reference, the inclo-
sures of earth are arranged according to counties, and so de
scribed. Works which were constructed of palisades simply,
without embankments or ditches, do not fall within this ar
rangement, but will be described collectively in a separate
chapter, under the head of " PALISADED INCLOSURES."

ST. LAWRENCE COUNTY.

A FEW aboriginal monuments are said to have existed in
this county. One or two. of these occurred near Pottsdam ;
but it is probable they are now nearly, if not quite obliterated.

A mound, eight feet in height, still exists on St. Regis Isl
and, in the St. Lawrence River. It is crossed by the boundary
line separating the territories of the United States and Great
Britain. It was excavated by Col. Hawkins, of the United
States Boundary Commission, in 1818. Near the surface were
human bones in considerable numbers, and in good preserva
tion ; but at the base were found traces of fire, charcoal, burned
bones, and fragments of pottery, together with some stone
implements and ornaments.

Upon the Canada shore of the St. Lawrence River, opposite
Morrisville in this county, a singular aboriginal deposit was dis
covered some years ago, in making the excavations for the St.
Lawrence Canal. The principal facts concerning them were
communicated to the author by Dr. T. Reynolds, of Brockville,
C. W., and are embodied in Vol. I. of the " Smithsonian Con-

16

ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

tributions to Knowledge," pp. 201, 202. Among the relics
of copper and other materials, discovered at this spot and de
scribed as above, was a small terra cotta mask of very good
workmanship. An engraving of
the size of the original is herewith
presented (Fig. 1). Mr. Reynolds,
who has the relic in his possession,
describes it as follows : " It is of
clay, and represents the contour of
the Indian head, after which it ap
pears to have been molded. It
corresponds very nearly in shape
with the skulls discovered at the
same place, and the foramina, or
holes found in the skull, are well
represented — showing that it was
modeled to resemble the bony
structure of the head, not the flesh or living subject. It seems
to have been broken off from some idol or image."

FIG. 1.

JEFFERSON COUNTY.

THIS county is bounded on one side by Lake Ontario, and
upon the other by the wild, mountainous region which sepa
rates the waters of the Hudson River from those of the St.
Lawrence. It is intersected by the Black River, one of the
most picturesque streams of the State. Its surface is diversi
fied : for about ten miles back from the shores of the lake, it is
nearly level ; we then reach the ledges of the Trenton lime
stone, and the entire country becomes more elevated and irre
gular. These natural features, implying an abundance of fish
and game, joined to great fertility of soil and easy cultivation,

PLATE I.

A\\\VI Will///

^nm* •*$*s-^j*> »r «• t -

^^J7"-^ -"o."

t^i»vW^-,- .^_^,i:^'

JEFFERSON COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 17

fitted this county for sustaining a large aboriginal population.
We are not surprised, therefore, at finding here numerous
traces of former occupancy. These consist chiefly of inclosures
of irregular outlines, situated, for the most part, upon the bor
ders of the high table-land or terrace formed by the abrupt
termination of the great limestone deposit of the Trenton
group, the base of which, it is supposed, was formerly washed
by the waters of Lake Ontario. Quite a number of these
works, however, occur upon the lower terrace, in places where
the natural features of the ground were favorable to their con
struction and objects. Works were examined in this county,
in the townships of Watertown, Le Ray, Rutland, Rodman,
Adams, and Ellisburgh.

The following examples are presented in the order in which
they were surveyed

PLATE I.

Ancient Work, Adams Township, Jefferson County, New York.

THIS work occupies a commanding position upon the brow
of the second terrace, which is here some hundreds of feet in
height, and very abrupt. The ground immediately back of
the site of the work is considerably depressed and swampy. It
is drained by a little stream (a), which, falling over the cliff,
forms a smal.1 but picturesque cascade. The narrow channel
of this stream was formerly obstructed by a beaver-dam, which
converted the marsh into a deep and impassable pond. The
elevation upon which this work is situated, it will thus be seen,
was well fitted by nature for defensive purposes — possessing the
two primary requisites, difficult approach and an unfailing sup
ply of water.

The artificial defences consist of an embankment of earth,
with an exterior ditch. The forest covers the greater part of

18 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

the work, and here the lines are still well preserved. The
embankment has an average height of perhaps three feet, by
ten feet in width at the base ; the ditch is of corresponding
dimensions. There are not less than seven gateways, varying
from eight to thirty feet in width. Upon the right of the
work, toward the swamp already mentioned, there is an ab
rupt bank not far from thirty feet in height, where the defences
are interrupted. At the point indicated by the letter Z>, a
large bass-wood (linden) tree is standing upon the embankment.
It measures twelve feet in circumference, three feet above the
ground. The trees within the inclosure are of the usual size.

Upon the northeastern slope of the eminence, within the walls
of the inclosure, and where the soil is sandy and dry, are a
great number of small pits and depressions in the earth. They
are now nearly filled by accumulations of leaves, but they must
at first have been from four to six feet in depth. Upon exca
vating some of them, it was found that they were the caches
in which the former occupants of the work had placed their
stores.* And although it seems probable the original deposits
had been removed, considerable quantities of parched corn, now

* The term cache , literally a hide or place of concealment, is of French
origin, and has become current among all the traders and trappers on
the frontiers. The practice of caching or hiding goods or provisions on
outward marches, to be used upon returning, or by parties following,
was derived from the Indians, among whom it was general. A cache is
made by digging a hole in the ground, which is lined with sticks, grass,
or any material which will protect the contents from the dampness of
the earth. After the goods or provisions have been deposited, the earth
is carefully covered over, so as best to prevent the penetration of water
from above. " It is often, in fact always necessary, at the West, to leave
no signs by means of which rival parties or the cunning savages may
discover the place of deposit. To this end the excavated earth is car
ried to a distance, and carefully concealed, or thrown into a stream, if
one is near. The place selected is usually some rolling point, sufficient
ly elevated to be secure from inundations. If it be well set with grass,
a solid piece of the turf of the size of the proposed excavation is cut
out. It is afterward laid back, and taking root in a short time, no

JEFFERSON COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC'. 19

carbonized by long exposure, were still to be found within
them. There were, perhaps, forty or fifty of these excavations
within the walls, and several upon the crown of the eminence
at C.

Upon removing the leaves at various points within the work,
carbonaceous accumulations, bones of animals, fragments of
pottery, and other evidences of occupation were discovered. A
small portion of the work, indicated on the map, has been clear
ed and put under cultivation. Here, just exterior to the wall,
upon the brow of the natural bank, at the spot marked d, sev
eral skeletons have been exhumed by the plough. They had
been buried in a sitting posture, and were very well pre
served.

By the operation of diluvial causes, the drift has been de
posited, in a very singular manner, upon the table-land upon
which the above work is situated. In some places it occurs in
long, narrow ridges, conforming to the general course of the
terrace bank; in others it forms amphitheatres of various
sizes ; and in a few instances it assumes a conical shape, re
sembling artificial tumuli. A short distance to the right of
the work under notice is a small natural amphitheatre, rising
in the midst of the marshy grounds, which has been supposed
by some to be artificial. Its relative position is indicated by
the letter e.

signs remain of its ever having been molested. However, as every lo
cality does not afford a turfy spot, the camp-fire is sometimes built
upon the place, or the animals are penned over it, which effectually
destroys all trace of the disturbance."— (Gregg's Commerce of the Prai
ries, vol. i. p. 69.) Father Hennepin, in his account of his passage down
the Mississippi River, in 1680, describes an operation of this kind in
the following terms : " We took up the green sod, and laid it by, and
digged a hole in the earth, where we put our goods, and covered them
with pieces of timber and earth, and then put in again the green turf:
so that it was impossible to suspect that any hole had been digged un
der it, for we flung the earth into the river."

20 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

About one and a half miles southeast of the above work, was
formerly another of perhaps larger size. It occupied a high,
oval-shaped hill, one side of which is very steep, while the other
subsides gently to the general level. The embankment ex
tended in a semicircular form around that part of the hill not
protected by nature ; and, previous to the cultivation of the
ground, was upwards of six feet in height from the bottom of
the trench. A very slight depression, and the greater luxu
riance of the verdure, resulting from the filling of the trench
with surface loam, are all that now indicate the original lines.
It is said that there was an avenue leading off, for some dis
tance, to the westward ; but it is no longer traceable. At the
base of this hill is a bowlder, in which are several artificial de
pressions, doubtless intended for mortars, and a variety of
grooves, in which the stone axes and other implements of the
aborigines were rubbed, in order to reduce them to the required
shape.

PLATE II. No. 1.

Ancient Work on " Dry Hill" five miles southeast of Water-
town^ Jefferson County, New York.

FOLLOWING the brow of the terrace northward from the
work first described, for about two miles, we come to another
work of somewhat more regular figure, and of larger dimen
sions. Most of it is under cultivation, and the outlines are
very much defaced. The embankment, upon one side, runs
into the forest land, where it is well preserved, measuring, per
haps, three feet in height. The darker lines of the engraving
show what parts are still distinctly marked ; the dotted lines
those which have been ploughed down, and which are no longer
distinguishable -from the general level, except by the deeper
green and more luxuriant growth of the grass on the line of the

PL A TE JI.

AGO (SHE GOT

DRY HILL" 5 M» S. E. OF WATER TOWN,

JfffEKSOMC' M.Y.

" ^ ^

400ft to tJvalncK-

2^ Mf S. E. OF WATERTOWN.
JEFFERSON C° M.Y.

;- °c, - '- ° ^' * CW*W/TOW

^ JJ j ? ^

^^^^^^'^

"* " . > j .1 ^ • * j . ; >j

JT. (7. Syuier S~, & 21

JEFFERSON COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 21

ancient trench. The position of the work, it will be seen, cor
responds very nearly with that of the one previously described.
There is, however, no water near at hand, except a limited sup
ply from a small spring. Nevertheless, this seems to have been
the site of a very populous aboriginal town. The entire area
of the work is covered with accumulations of carbonaceous mat
ter, burned stones, fragments of bones, pottery, etc. Indeed,
these indications are visible for some distance exterior to the
walls, upon the adjacent level. These artificial accumulations
have rendered the soil within the inclosure extremely fertile,
and it sustains most luxuriant crops. In cultivating the area,
many fragments of human bones, some of them burned, have
been observed — suggesting the possibility that the ancient vil
lage was destroyed by enemies, and that these are the bones of
its occupants, who fell in defence of their kindred, and were
burned in the fires which consumed their lodges. A little to
the northward of the work, there seems to have been an aborig
inal cemetery. Here the plough frequently exposes skeletons,
buried according to the Indian mode, and accompanied by va
rious rude relics of stone and bone. Within and around the
work are also found stone axes, flint arrow-heads, and other
remnants of savage art. Fragments of pottery and broken
pipes of clay are, however, most abundant. Of these bushels
might be collected without much difficulty.

It is clear that this work was not intended as a place of last
resort, but was occupied by a considerable population for a long
period. It was undoubtedly a fortified town. It should be
remarked, that although now nearly or quite filled up, here
were originally a number of pits (popularly known as wells) of
considerable size — the caches of the ancient occupants.

22 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

PLATE II. No. 2.

Ancient Work two and a half miles southeast of Watertown,
Jefferson County, New York.

STILL continuing along the brow of the terrace northward,
for two and a half or three miles, we reach a third work, the
greater part of which is covered with forest, and is consequently
well preserved. It is much smaller than any of those before
described, and is bounded by a series of right lines, slightly
rounded at the angles, which gives it something of the appear
ance of a modern field-work. The slope of the terrace bank is
here comparatively gentle, and there is a step or table about
midway from the brow to the base. Here a number of springs
start out, below the stratum of rock. Formerly the walls of
the work were continued down "the slope, toward the springs,
as indicated by the dotted lines in the plan. They are not now
to be traced further than the edge of the terrace. The position
of this work is remarkably fine, and was selected with taste and
skill. The table-land immediately around it is level ; the soil
gravelly and dry. There seems to have been a burial-place in
this vicinity, and pipes and fragments of pottery are of common
occurrence. It is to be hoped that the remaining portion of
this work will be preserved from the encroachments of the
plough.

PLATE III. No. 1.

Ancient Work half a mile west of Burrvitye, near Watertown,
Jefferson County, New York.

A WORK, differing somewhat from those before described, is
situated two miles north of the inclosure last noticed, upon a
high promontory or headland, half a mile west of the little
village of Burrville. The northern base of this promontory is

PLATE Iff.

? I.

HALF A MILE WEST OF BURRVILLE,
JBFFEKSOM C° M. Y.

SCALE.

400 ff U> the LuX.

EG J 'fu.ua- ,18 « 8,

PUTiAND TP. JEFFERSON C? M.Y.

LE RAY TP. JEFFERSON C9 N.Y.

.

JEFFERSON COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 23

washed by a small and rapid stream, a branch of the east fork
of Sandy Creek. Deep ravines lend strength to the position
on the remaining sides, except toward the west, where it joins
the highlands. Here, extending across the neck of the pro
montory, (the only direction from which access is easy,) was
formerly an artificial defence, consisting of an embankment of
earth and a trench. The plough has filled the one and lev
eled the other, but the lines can still be accurately traced by
attending to the various circumstances already repeatedly men
tioned. At the part marked a, was formerly a large deep pit,
resembling the cellar of a dwelling-house. At b, was also an
accumulation of large stones, bearing traces of fire ; and which
the early settlers, indulging in vague notions of the mineral
wealth of the country, called " the Furnace"

Most of these stones were used to fill the pit near by ; but
enough still remain to mark the site of the supposed "furnace."
Whenever the land in this work is ploughed over, many relics
of art are disclosed, fragments of pottery, broken pipes, imple
ments of stone and bone, beads of similar materials, etc., etc.

About a mile northeast of this place, upon a fine level tract
of ground, are the traces of an aboriginal village. Rude fire
places, constructed of rough stones huddled together, and sur
rounded by carbonaceous accumulations, sometimes two feet
deep, mark the site of the ancient lodges. These indications
are numerous. Here, too, are to be found relics, entirely cor
responding with those already noticed, as occurring within and
around the ancient inclosures.

24 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

PLATE III. No. 2.

Ancient Work, Rutland Township, Jefferson County, New York.

THE slightest and much the rudest structure discovered in
Jefferson county, is the one here delineated. It is situated
about a hundred rods back from the brow of the terrace,
already so often referred to, and which here rises abruptly
from the inferior level, presenting a bold, and, in some places,
a precipitous bank.

Notwithstanding its elevation, this terrace has numberless
depressions or basins, which are wet and marshy. Upon a
slight elevation, in the midst of one of these, and still covered
with a primitive forest, is the work in question. It will be ob
served that it is exceedingly irregular, and that the lines are
interrupted by several wide openings, which are quite too broad
to be regarded as gateways.

The embankment is not of uniform dimensions. In some
places it is elevated but a foot or eighteen inches, by four or
five feet base, while in others it is perhaps three feet in height.
The ditch is also irregular — in sections scarcely exceeding a
large plough furrow in depth and width. In fact, the work
seems imperfect, and to have been constructed in haste for
temporary purposes. Within the area, which is quite uneven,
are several small accumulations of stones, which bear the marks
of fire. Upon removing some of them, the proprietor of the
ground found ashes and other burnt matter, among which
was a carbonized ear of maize. A small but entire vessel of
pottery, of considerable symmetry of shape, was also found
here some years ago.

Human bones have been discovered beneath the leaves ; and
in nearly every part of the trench skeletons of adults of both
sexes, of children and infants, have been found, covered only by
the vegetable accumulations. They seem to have been thrown
together promiscuously. They have also been found in a nar-

JEFFERSON COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 25

row depression resembling an artificial trench, indicated by a
dotted line in the plan, and caused by the subsidence of the
earth in a cleft of the limestone substratum. These skeletons,
from all accounts, do not seem to have been much decayed, and
no difficulty was experienced in recovering them entire. The
skulls were in some cases fractured, as if by a blow from a
hatchet or club. These circumstances would seem to imply,
not only that the work is of comparatively late construction,
but also that this was the scene of one of those indiscriminate
massacres so common in the history of savage warfare.

From the bank of the terrace, near this work, a very exten
sive and beautiful prospect is commanded.

PLATE III. No. 3.

Ancient Work, half a mile west of Lockport, Jefferson County,
New York.

THE remaining works of Jefferson county, so far as investi
gated, are situated on lower grounds, generally near streams,
which are made subservient to art for purposes of defence.
The work here presented is a good example. It is situated on
Black River (Ka-me-hargo), in Le Ray township, half a mile
below the little manufacturing town of Lockport. The banks
of the river are here very high, and quite inaccessible. The
character of the work is well shown in the engraving, and needs
little explanation beyond what that affords. It will be seen
that the ends of the embankment extend for a short distance
down the slope of the river bank, and then curve slightly in
wards, as though designed to prevent the flanks being turned
by an enemy. The lines, where they cross the road, and be
tween the road and the river, are very distinct, and the em
bankment is between three and four feet in height. The rest
of the work may be traced without much difficulty, although it
2

26 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

has long been under cultivation. Upon the wall, at the point
indicated by the letter c, is still standing a pine stump, upwards
of three feet in diameter, probably having an age of not less
than four hundred years. The usual relics are found within
the area of the inclosure ; and in the natural bank at d, a
number of skeletons have been disclosed by the plough. They
are much decayed, but in respect of position correspond with
those found elsewhere in Indian cemeteries.

PLATE IV. No. 1.

Ancient Work, Le Ray Township, six miles northeast of Water-

town.

IN the same township with the foregoing work, and about four
miles distant, in a northwest direction, is the work here repre
sented. It occupies a small sandy elevation, situated in the
midst of low grounds. It is lozenge-shaped, and is the most
regular of any ancient structure which has fallen under the no
tice of the author in the State. Where the lines are interrupted
on the north, the ground is considerably elevated, and subsides
abruptly, precluding the necessity of an embankment for de
fensive purposes. The sites of the ancient lodges, indicated by
heaps of burned stones, calcined shells, fragments of pottery,
etc., are yet to be traced, notwithstanding that the land has
been for a considerable time under cultiyation. Near this work
skeletons have been frequently exhumed.

iv:

? J

"-•1% Acres: •

LE RAY TP. JEFFERSON C? N.Y.
6 Miles !f.E. <// WutertoWH,.

ie>- (848,

LE RAY TP. JEFFERSON C? N.Y.

Tteaj-
Sandford's Cor-nCr-

£.6. Syaier 1848

N. PART OF EILISBURQH T P. JEFF ERSON C* N Y

ELLISBURGH TP.JEF FERSON.C0. N.Y-
2h Mat

JEFFERSON COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 27

PLATE IV. No. 2.

Ancient Work, Le Ray Township, Jefferson County, New York.

THREE miles to the westward of the inclosure last described,
near " Sandford's Corners," was formerly another work of sim
ilar character, but larger size. Only a small portion of the
embankment is yet visible ; the dotted lines, however, show
the original outlines, according to the recollection of those who
were acquainted with the work before it was disturbed. The
walls were then not less than six feet in height, measuring from
the bottom of the trench.

Within the area are found great numbers of the shells of
the fresh-water molluscas, accumulations of burnt matter, quan
tities of pottery in fragments, with broken pipes, etc. Some of
the pipes are of good workmanship and fine finish. In this
vicinity, also, have skeletons been found ; all buried in a sit
ting posture.

Several other works formerly existed in this township, but
they have been either entirely or in great part obliterated.
One is spoken of near Felt's Mills, but no opportunity was
afforded of examining it.

PLATE IV. Nos. 3 AND 4.

Ancient Works in Ellisburgh Township, Jefferson County,
New York.

A NUMBER of ancient works formerly existed in Ellisburgh, one
of the southern towns of the county. Plate IV., No. 3, is one
of those which are yet perfect. It presents no novel features ;
is protected in the usual manner, and has the usual relics and
traces of occupancy within its walls. Three quarters of a mile
to the eastward is another similar, but larger work (Plate IV.,

28 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

No. 4), which has been very nearly obliterated by the plough.
The sections indicated in the engraving are yet quite distinct ;
nor can the parts supplied differ very materially from the origi
nal lines. Perhaps no work in the State has more decided
evidences of aboriginal occupation. The entire area is covered
with traces of ancient habitations, and with relics of art — pot
tery, ornaments, and implements. Exterior to the walls, in all
directions, but particularly on the level grounds between the
two works, the same indications .are abundant. Indeed, the
artificial accumulations are so great as materially to augment
the fertility of the soil. Caches have been observed here, in
some of which the present proprietor of the grounds has found
a number of bushels of parched corn, carbonized by long ex
posure. It is scattered over the surface, and after rains may
be collected in considerable quantities. Here, too, have been
found skeletons buried according to the usual custom.

The aboriginal population must have been very large at this
spot, which, both in respect of soil and the close proximity of
springs and pure streams, affords a most beautiful site for an
Indian village.

About a mile to the southward of this group, upon the land
of Mr. Mendall, was another work, of which no trace now
remains. Another occurred at a place called Clark's Settle
ment, still another at Ellis' Settlement, and others in various
parts of the township, concerning which no definite information
can now be obtained.

Near the neat and pretty village of Pierrepoint's Manor, is
also the site of an ancient town, undistinguishable from the
fortified village already described, except by the absence of an
embankment and trench. Large quantities of relics have been
recovered here. A work of considerable size was visible until
within a few years, half or three fourths of a mile northwest of
the village of Adams, on the lands of Mr. W. Benton. It is
described by Mr. Justus Eddy, in a letter to the author, as
having been semicircular in form, five hundred feet in diameter,

JEFFERSON COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 29

and the open segment facing or rather opening toward a
marshy piece of ground, through which flowed a small stream.
There were two or three breaks, or passage-ways, in the em
bankments. At the time of the settlement of this part of the
country by the whites, about fifty years ago, trees two and
three feet in diameter were growing upon the wall, and within
the area. The embankment was then between three and four
feet in height. Within the work were found quantities of pot
tery, pipes, and beads, covered with ornamental figures. A
star-shaped silver ornament, bearing the initials P. H., was also
found. It was quite thin, not exceeding the common sixpence
in thickness.

Upon an island, outside of Sackett's Harbor, known as
Snow-shoe Island, it is said, there are traces of an ancient
work. So far as could be gathered, it had been a palisaded
structure, unaccompanied by an embankment.

Besides the various earth-works above described, there are a
number of other interesting objects of antiquarian interest in
this county. Among them may be mentioned the "bone-pits"
or deposits of human bones. One is found near the village of
Brownsville, on Black River. It is described as a pit, ten or
twelve feet square, by perhaps four feet deep, in which are pro
miscuously heaped together a large number of human skeletons.
It will be seen, ultimately, that these accumulations owe their
origin to a remarkable custom, common to many of the Indian
tribes, of collecting and depositing together the bones of their
dead, at stated intervals. Another pit, very unlike this, how
ever, exists about three miles east of "Watertown. It is situ
ated upon the slope of a hill, and was originally marked by a
number of large stones heaped over it. Upon removing these
and excavating beneath them, a pit about six feet square, and
four deep, was discovered, filled with human bones, all well
preserved, but in fragments. Upwards of forty pairs of the
patella were counted, showing that at least that number of
skeletons had been deposited in the pit. It is said that the

30

ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

bones, when first exhumed, exhibited marks such as would
result from the gnawing of wild animals ; and from this circum
stance, and the fact that they were so much broken up, it has
been very plausibly supposed that these are the bones of some
party, which had been cut off by enemies, and whose remains
were subsequently collected and buried by their friends. All
the bones are those of adults. Many of the fragments have
been removed and scattered, but several bushels yet remain.
No relics of any kind were found with them.

A large mound is said to occur " about one mile from Wash-
ingtonville, and eleven from Adams, on a cross-road from the
' ridge road,' leading from Lamb's tavern to Washingtonville.
It is conical in shape, and thirty feet high." It is questionable
whether this is artificial.

OSWEGO COUNTY.

A GREAT part of this county is low and wet, and it is not
generally so well adapted to sustain an aboriginal population
as the adjoining counties of Jefferson and Onondaga. Few
ancient monuments occur within its limits ; and concerning
these, little was ascertained in the course of these investiga
tions. The following facts were chiefly derived from J. V. H.
Clark, Esq., of Manlius, Onondaga county, whose attention was
especially called thereto in the preparation of his forthcoming
History of the Onondaga and Oswego Country. Two inclo-
sures, elliptical in form, existed in Granby township, in the
southern part of the county. One of these occurred on State's
Hundred, lot 24. Each contained about two acres, and both
had gateways opening to the east. The ditch, in each case,
was exterior to the walls. Another formerly existed near

ONONDAGA COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 31

Phillipsville, of which no traces now remain ; and still another
is said to occur in Granby township, near "Little Utica," in a
bend of Ox Creek. Near the town of Fulton, on the west side
of Oswego River, is an eminence called "J3o?ie Hill" in which
have been found great numbers of human bones promiscuously
heaped together. They are much decayed. Intermixed with
them were discovered a number of flint arrow-heads. It is
probable that none of these remains possessed features differing
essentially from those of other parts of the State. ',

ONONDAGA COUNTY.

PROBABLY no county in the State had originally a greater
number of aboriginal monuments within its boundaries, than
the county of Onondaga. It has, however, been so long settled,
and so generally brought under cultivation, that nearly all ves
tiges of its ancient remains have disappeared. The sites of
many are, however, still remembered ; but even these will soon
be forgotten. It is a fortunate circumstance that the antiqui
ties of this county were the first to attract the attention of
observers, and our accounts relating to them are more com
plete than concerning those of the other parts of the State.
Our principal source of information respecting their numbers,
localities, and character, is the memoir of De Witt Clinton,
already several times alluded to. Mr. Schoolcraft and Mr. J.
V. H. Clark, of Manlius, have presented additional informa
tion ; and from these authorities we derive most of the facts,
and illustrations which follow.

Ancient works occurred in the towns of Fabius, De Witt,
Lafayette, Camillus, Onondaga, Manlius, Elbridge, and Pom-
pey ; but of many of them we know nothing beyond the simple

32 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

fact of their former existence. It should be mentioned that
some of the townships here named have been erected within
the last few years, and since the date of Mr. Clinton's Me
moir.

Those in Elbridge, according to Mr. Clinton, occurred near
the village of that name, about four miles from Seneca River,
upon lands then (1817) occupied by Judge Munro. They
were two in number. " One was on a very high hill, and cov
ered three acres. It had a gateway opening toward the east ;
and upon the west was another, communicating with a spring
about ten rods from the fort. It was elliptical in shape : the
ditch deep, and the eastern wall eight feet high. The stump
of a black-oak tree, certainly one hundred years old, stood
upon the embankment. The second work was about half a
mile distant, upon lower grounds. It was constructed like
the first, but was only half as large. * * * * The early
settlers observed, in this vicinity, the shells of testaceous ani
mals accumulated, in several places, in considerable masses,
together with numerous fragments of pottery. Judge Munro
found, in digging the cellar of his house, several pieces of
burned clay ; and, in various places, large spots of deep black
mould, demonstrating the former existence of buildings or
erections of some kind. At one place he observed what
appeared to be a well, viz., a hole ten feet deep, and the earth
much caved in. Upon digging to the depth of three and a
half feet, he came to a quantity of flints, below which he found
a great number of human bones." This disposition of the
dead, Mr. Clinton conjectures, was made by an enemy ; but we
shall soon see that it probably owed its existence to the prac-
\, tice of gathering the bones of the dead at stated intervals, and
depositing them in pits — a practice common among the Hu-
rons and other Indians around the great lakes.

Mr. Clark has described some aboriginal remains in this
township, which are probably the same ones alluded to by Mr.
Clinton. He says: "Upon lot 81, N. E. part, on lands now

ONONDAGA COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 33

occupied by Mr. John Munro (previously the Judge Munro
farm) was formerly a fort situated on high ground. In 1 793
the ditch and embankment were easily to be traced. Large trees
stood upon the wall and in the ditch. The work was square,
except that the line of embankment toward the west curved
slightly outward. The area was about an acre and a quarter.
The walls were about two feet high ; the gateway opened
toward the west, and was twelve feet wide. It was situated on
a beautiful eminence, nearly surrounded by ravines."

" About half a mile N. W. of this work," continues Mr. Clark,
" on what is called the Purdy lot, was another work of larger
dimensions, containing about four and a half acres of ground.
It is situated upon one of the most considerable elevations of
the town, and is nearly or quite square, with gateways opening
to the east and west. The embankment was originally about
three feet high, and an oak tree, two feet in diameter, was
standing upon it. On the south side were numerous holes,
about two feet deep and six feet apart. Large quantities of
broken pottery and fresh water shells are still found here. An
oaken chest was discovered here, somewhere about the year
1800, which contained a quantity of silk goods. The folds and
colors were easily distinguishable, but the fabric crumbled on
exposure. Some copper coins, it is said, were found with the
silks.

" On lot 84, on the farm now owned by Mr. Caleb Brown,
about forty rods south of the road, was formerly a circular work,
of upwards of three acres' area. The embankment was about
two feet high, the ditch exterior and four or five feet deep.
There was a wide gateway upon the west side, and a smaller
one on the northeast, opening toward a spring, some rods distant.
In digging near the western gateway, fragments of timber,
bearing marks of edge tools, were found ; and in an excavation
called a well, fourteen feet deep, a quantity of charred Indian
corn was discovered. Upon the site of Mr. Brown's house and
garden, was also an ancient circular work, inclosing about an
2*

34 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

acre of ground. Within it were cinders, charcoal, etc., as if it
had been the site of a blacksmith's shop."

" In the town of Pompey," continues Mr. Clinton, " is the
highest ground in the county, separating the waters flowing
into the Chesapeake and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The most
elevated portions of the town exhibit the remains of ancient
settlements, and in various places the traces of a numerous
population appear. About two miles south from Manlius
Square, in this township, I examined the remains of a large
town, which were obviously indicated by large spots of black
mould, at intervals of a few paces asunder, in which I observed
bones of animals, ashes, carbonized grains of corn, etc. — denoting
the residence of human beings. This town must have extended
at least half a mile from east to west, and three quarters of a
mile from north to south. On the east side of this old town
there is a perpendicular descent of one hundred feet, into a
deep ravine, through which flows a fine stream of water. Upon
the north side is a similar ravine. Here there are graves, on
each side of the ravine, close to the precipice. Some of the
graves contain five or six skeletons, promiscuously thrown to
gether. On the south bank of the ravine, gun-barrels, bullets,
pieces of lead, and a skull perforated by a bullet have been
found. Indeed, relics of this kind are scattered all over these
grounds. A mile to the eastward of this town, there is a cem
etery, containing three or four acres ; and to the westward of
it is still another.

" There are, in this vicinity, three old forts, placed in a tri
angular position, and within eight miles of each other. One
is about a mile south of Jamesville [in the present town of De
Witt], the second in a northeastern, and the third in a south
eastern direction. They are circular or elliptical in form ;
bones are found scattered over their areas ; and standing on a
heap of mouldering ashes, within one of them, I saw a white
pine-tree, eight and a half feet in circumference, and at least
one hundred and thirty years old."

ONONDAGA COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC.

35

Mr. Clinton expresses the opinion that the three "forts"
were designed to protect the "town," the vestiges of which at
tracted his attention ; and he even goes so far as to conjecture,
from the occurrence of bones upon the brows of the northern
ravine, that the attack by which the town was destroyed was
made from this direction ! Of course this is wholly suppositi
tious. The relics of European art, scattered over the site, show
clearly enough that this was an Indian village, occupied by the
savages subsequent to the commencement of intercourse with
the whites. The traces which Mr. Clinton describes are pre
cisely those which mark the site of every abandoned Indian
settlement throughout the country. This county possessed a
very heavy aboriginal population ; probably greater than any
equal extent of territory north of the Floridas ; and it is not
surprising, therefore, that the traces of ancient occupancy are
so abundant.* Mr. Clinton states that it was estimated there
were not less than eighty cemeteries in Pompey township
alone. McCauley states that one of the three works, mentioned
above by Mr. Clinton, was triangular in form, and contained
about six acres.

Mr. J. Y. H. Clark has described a work situated in part of
lot 33 in this township; but whether or not it is one of the three
mentioned by Mr. Clinton, it is impossible to determine. " It
is about four miles southeast from Manlius village, situated on
a slight eminence, which is nearly surrounded by a deep ravine,
the banks of which are quite steep and somewhat rocky. The

*Mr. Schoolcraft states, on the authority of Le Fort, late chief of the
Onondagas, that Ondiaka, the great chronicler of his tribe, informed him,
on his last journey to Oneida, that in ancient times, before they had
fixed their settlements at Onondaga, and before the Five Nations were
confederated, the Onondagas lived below Jamesville and in Pompey ;
that in consequence of continued warfare with other tribes, they removed
their villages frequently ; and that, after the confederation, their for
tifications being no longer necessary, they were allowed to fall into
decay. This, he believed, was the origin of the ancient works at these
points. — Notes on the Iroquois, p. 442.

86 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

ravine is in shape somewhat like an ox-bow, made by two streams
which pass nearly around and then unite. Across this isthmus
of this peninsula, if we may so call it, was a wall of earth run
ning from northeast to southwest. When first discovered by
the early settlers, the embankment was straight, four or five
feet high, with an exterior ditch from two to three feet deep.
The area thus inclosed is from ten to twelve acres. A portion
of the area was free from trees, and was called the Prairie^ and
is still noted among the old men as the spot where the first
battalion military training was held in the county of Onondaga.
But that portion of the work near the wall has recently been
cleared of a heavy growth of black-oak timber. Many of the
trees were large, and probably one hundred and fifty or two
hundred years old. Some were standing in the ditch, and
others on the embankment. The plough has defaced the lines
to a considerable degree, but they may still be traced the whole
extent. Within the inclosure there is a burial-place. Here,
too, are to be found numerous fragments of dark-brown pottery,
of coarse material."*

Mr. Clark mentions that a great number of rude relics have
been discovered here. Among other things found in the vicin
ity were some small three-pound cannon balls. There is a large
rock in the ravine on the south, on which the following charac
ters are inscribed, viz. : IIIIIX. They are cut nine inches
long, three-quarters of an inch deep, and the same in width, and
are perfectly regular.

Mr. Clark describes another ancient work "situated on a hill,
about a mile and a half south of Delphi in this township, on lot
No. 100. It has an area of about eight acres, and occupies an
elevated piece of ground, surrounded by a ravine made by two
small streams which pass around it and unite on the north. It
had a large gateway upon the north and a smaller one on the
south. Before the first was a kind of mound. The defences

* Sclioolcraft's Notes on the Iroquois, p. 469.

ONONDAGA COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC.

37

consisted of a ditch and pickets. At every place where a picket
stood, a slight depression is still distinctly visible. In one cor
ner were evident marks of a blacksmith's shop, including various
smith's tools, a bed of cinders, and a deposit of charcoal. Be
neath one of these piles was found, en cache, a quantity of charred
Indian corn, and squash, and pumpkin seeds. A short distance
to the south of the work is an extensive cemetery, in which the
bodies were buried in rows." Quantities of the implements and

FIG. 2.

trinkets introduced among the Indians, at the period of the first
European intercourse, are found with the skeletons. The pal
isades were set in the bottom of the ditch, which, when first
known, was six feet deep. About a mile west from this, are
the remains of another work of similar character ; and about a
mile north of Delphi, on a farm owned by a Mr. Sheldon, is
still another. Around a number of these works, the corn hills
of the Indians could be traced for a long period after the occu
pation of the country by the whites. Medals, crosses, gun-bar
rels, knives, axes — in short, every variety of articles introduced
by the Europeans after the discovery, are to be found here in
abundance.

Perhaps the most interesting work, of which any traces yet

•

38

ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

remain in Pompey township, is the one of which Mr. Clark
gives the accompanying plan, and which occurs on lot No. 3,
on land owned by Mr. Isaac Keeler.

•V B

A. *."-

FIG. 3.
B, parapet — A, mounds — C, look out — D. palisades.

Mr. Clark describes this work as follows : " It had been in
closed with palisades of cedar, and contained some ten acres of
ground. The plan was a parallelogram, divided by two rows
of palisades, running east and west, and crossing in the center.
The space between the rows was about twelve feet. At the N.
W. corner was an isolated bastion and an embrasure. At the
period of the first cultivation of the land, many stumps of the
palisades, which had been burned off even with the ground, were
ploughed up. "Within the southern division of the fort were
several mounds, the principal one of which was four feet high,

ONONDAGA COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC.

39

rising on a base of about fifteen feet in diameter, composed
chiefly of ashes, in which were found many beads of the size of
bullets, and a great variety of trinkets made of red pipe stone.
Several hundred pounds of old iron, consisting of axes, gun-
barrels, files, knives, etc., etc., were also found in the same place.
The smaller mounds contained charred corn, many bushels of

FIG. 4, (See next page.)

which were ploughed up. At a distance of about thirty rods
north of the work was a ditch, nearly forty rods long, and va
rying from three to six feet in depth. It seems to have been
entirely disconnected from the work in question. The situation
of this ancient fort is on an elevation of land rising gradually
for about a mile in every direction ; and, at the time of its oc
cupancy, several hundred acres of land must have been cleared

40 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

around it. Fragments of pottery, pipes, flint arrow-heads, stone
hatchets, etc., etc., are abundantly found on this spot. In many
places both within and exterior to the work, were found pits for
hiding corn and other articles, en cache." Some small mounds
containing human bones, are found on the lands of Mr. S. A.
Keene, in this vicinity.

A relic of some interest, and which has given rise to no in
considerable speculation is a stone bearing an inscription, found
in this township in 1820, by Mr. Philo Cleveland. It is about
fourteen inches long by twelve broad and eight thick, granitic,
and bearing upon one side a rude representation of a tree en
twined by an equally rude representation of a serpent, with
some letters and a date, as shpwn in the cut inserted on the
preceding page, Fig. 4.

There seems to be little doubt that the stone was found as
represented, and that it is a genuine remnant of antiquity.
Some have supposed that it attests that Ponce de Leon, Nar-
vaez, or some other Spanish adventurer, penetrated thus far to
the northward, during the period of Spanish adventure in Flor
ida. The stone is now in the museum of the Albany Institute.

Within two miles of Jamesville, in De "Witt township, upon
the banks of Butternut Creek, there existed until recently the
traces of an inclosure or fort, and in the vicinity many evidences
of comparatively late occupation by the Indians. The fort had
been rectangular, with bastions, and constructed with cedar
pickets, firmly set in the ground. The stumps of the palisades
were struck by the plough when the land was first cultivated.
It appeared that the cabins which it had inclosed had been
arranged with regularity — a practice not common among the
Indians before intercourse with the whites. In the year 1810
an oak was felled near this fort, in cutting which a leaden bullet
was found imbedded in the wood. One hundred and forty-three
cortical layers were counted above it. It must, therefore, have
been fired in 1667. Fire-arms were introduced among the
Iroquois, by the French, as early as 1 609 — the date of Hud-

ONONDAGA COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC.

41

son's exploration of the river bearing his name. Brass cruci
fixes, medals of silver and other metals, dial-plates, and articles
of iron, are of frequent occurrence here, mingled with stone axes,
and implements and ornaments of bone, shell, and clay, the
relics of an earlier period. Among other articles of European
origin, a cross of pure gold was found some years ago, bearing
the sacred monogram I. H. S. Not far from this spot are two
high hills of great regularity, sometimes called mounds, the
surfaces of which are covered with pits, which Mr. Schoolcraft
conjectures were caches.

Some investigators are of opinion that Champlain penetrated
into this country in 1615. The reasons in support of this
opinion are forcibly put forward by Mr. 0. H. Marshall, of
Buffalo, in a paper published in the Bulletin of the New York
Historical Society, for March, 1849. From this paper the
subjoined account of the Indian fort attacked by Champlain is
extracted. It throws light upon the modes of defence common
to the Indians at that period, besides being of interest in several
other particulars. Says Champlain :

" ' On the 10th of October, at 3 P. M., we arrived before the
fort of the enemy. Some skirmishing ensued among the Indians,
which frustrated our design of not discovering ourselves until
the next morning. The impatience of our savages, and the
desire they had of witnessing the effects of our fire-arms on the
enemy, did not suffer them to wait. When I approached with
my little detachment, we showed them what they had never
before seen or heard. As soon as they saw us, and heard the
balls whistling about their ears, they retired quietly into the
fort, carrying with them their killed and wounded. We also
fell back upon the main body, having five or six wounded, one of
whom died.'

" The Indians now retired out of sight of the fort, and refused
to listen to the advice of Champlain as to the, best mode of con
ducting the siege. He continued to aid them with his men,
and, in imitation of the more ancient mode of warfare, planned

42 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

a kind of movable tower, sufficiently high when advanced to the
fort to overlook the palisades. It was constructed of pieces of
wood placed one upon another, and was finished in one night.

" ' The village,' says Chainplain, l was inclosed by four rows
of large interlaced palisades, thirty feet high, near a body of
unfailing water. Along these palisades the Iroquois had placed
conductors to convey water to the outside, to extinguish fire.
Galleries were constructed inside of the palisades, protected by
a ball-proof parapet of wood, garnished with double pieces of
wood.

" ' When the tower was finished, two hundred of the strongest
men advanced it near to the palisades. I stationed four marks
men on its top, who were well protected from the stones and
arrows which were discharged by the enemy.'

" The French soon drove the Iroquois from the galleries ; but
the undisciplined Hurons, instead of setting fire to the palisades,
as directed by Champlain, consumed the time in shouting at
the enemy, and discharging harmless showers of arrows into the
fort. Without discipline, and impatient of restraint, each one
acted as his fancy pleased him. They placed the fire on the
wrong side of the fort, so that it had no effect.

"'When the fire had gone out, they began to pile wood
against the palisades, but in such small quantities that it made
no impression. The confusion was so great that nothing could
be heard. I called out to them, and pointed out, as well as I
could, the danger they incurred by their imprudent manage
ment ; but they heard nothing by reason of the great noise
which they made. Perceiving that I should break my head
in calling, that my remonstrances were in vain, and that there
were no means of remedying the disorder, I resolved to effect,
with my own people, what could be done, and to fire upon those
we could discover.

" ' In the mean time, the enemy profited by our disorder.
They brought and threw water in such abundance, that it
poured in streams from the conductors, and extinguished the

ONONDAGA COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 43

fire in a very short time. They continued, without cessation,
to discharge nights of arrows, which fell on us like hail. Those
who were on the tower killed and wounded a great number.

'"The battle lasted about three hours. Two of our chiefs,
some head-men, and about fifteen others were wounded.' "

Mr. Marshall is of the opinion that this fort was situated
upon the shores of Onondaga Lake. He arrives at this con
clusion from an analysis of the courses and distances traveled
by Champlain, the streams which he crossed, etc., and continues:

" Another circumstance to aid us in the location, is the de
scription given by Champlain of the fort itself. ' It was situated,'
says he, ' on the borders of an unfailing body of water.' This
he calls ' Etang] a word generally applied to an artificial pond,
but sometimes used for a small lake or other natural collection
of water. There is nothing that will answer the terms of the
description in so many particulars, as the shore of Onondaga
Lake ; and it is quite probable that it is there we must look
for the location of the fort which was invested by the invaders.

" Three miles southeast of its outlet, on the northern bank
of the lake, and near the present village of Liverpool, an an
cient Indian work was discovered by the early settlers, which
may have been the site of the fortification in question. There
is reason to believe that the same locality was occupied by
Monsieur Dupuis and the Jesuits, when they established them
selves among the Onondagas in 1656.

" Mr. Clark, of Manlius, thinks that the Count de Frontenac
occupied this position when he invaded the Onondaga country,
in 1696, and that Col. Van Schaick encamped there while on
his expedition against the Onondagas, in 1779."

In the account of Frontenac's Expedition, contained in Yol.
V. of the Paris Documents, now deposited in the office of the
Secretary of State of New York, it is stated that the principal
fort of the Onondagas was burned by the Indians upon the
approach of the French army. The terms of the account are
as follows : — " The cabins of the Indians and the triple pali-

44

ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

sade which encircled their fort were found entirely burnt. It
was an oblong flanked by four regular bastions. The two rows
of pickets, which touched each other, were of the thickness of
an ordinary mast ; and at six feet distance outside stood an
other palisade of much smaller dimensions, but from forty to
fifty feet high." This account also states that the invaders
were successful in discovering almost all of the caches in which
the Indians had deposited their corn.*

In his recently published work, Mr. Clark presents a plan
of a stockade work, surveyed by Judge Geddes, and probably
the very one referred to by Mr. Marshall.

/ss

4fc

^«^s

FIG 5.

It is situated on the shores of Onondaga Lake, between
Brown's pump-works and Liverpool. A fine spring of water
rises near it, and quantities of relics, of various kinds, have
been found within it.

* Documentary History of New York, Vol. I., p. 332.

MADISON COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC.

45

MADISON COUNTY.

ON the site of the village of Cazenovia, situated in the town
ship of the same name, which adjoins Pompey, Onondaga
county, on the east, it is said an ancient earth-work once exist
ed. No vestige of it now remains. By some it was represent
ed to be circular, by others rectangular. Many rude relics
have been found here.

There are yet traces of an old palisaded work in the town
ship of Cazenovia, about two miles north of Delphi, of which
Mr. Clark, in his " History of Onondaga county," gives the fol
lowing plan.

It will be observed that
it essentially corresponds
with those in Onondaga
county, already described.
It has an area of about five
acres, and numerous graves
of the Indians are to be
found both within and with
out the walls, in the vi
cinity.

FIG. 6.

In the town of Lenox there were still visible, in 1812, the
traces of a work of more modern date. It occupied a position
corresponding with most of the defensive structures of the
aborigines, at the junction of two deep ravines, the precipitous
banks of which not only afforded protection, but precluded the
necessity, in great part, of artificial defences. Within the
point thus cut off and defended, there is a small eminence, in
which there are a number of excavations, containing traces of
decayed wood.

It may be suggested (though, not knowing their dimensions,
the suggestion may be absurd) that the pits were originally de-

46 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

signed for caches. Mr. Schoolcraft supposes that this work was
erected by the French — -a supposition which finds support in
the regular form of the palisaded outlines, and the circumstance
that the ground within and around the work has not yet re
turned to a forest state.

OTSEGO COUNTY.

IT is stated, upon very good authority, that an ancient cir
cular earth-work once existed near Unadilla, in this county.
Nothing is known concerning it, further than that it was situ
ated on low ground.

CHENANGO COUNTY.

THERE was formerly an ancient inclosure, of small size,
within the limits of the village of Oxford, in the township of
that name, on the banks of the Chenango River. It is de
scribed by Clinton as occupying a small eminence, three or
four acres in extent, which rises abruptly from the flats bor
dering the river. At the base of this eminence, upon the west
ern side, flows the stream, and here the descent is precipitous.
A line of embankment and a trench extended in a semicircu
lar form from this bank, leaving narrow interruptions at the
ends,, for ingress and egress. The area thus inclosed was about
three fourths of an acre. At the period of the first settlement,
it was covered with a dense forest ; yet, says Mr. Clinton. " the
outline of the work could be distinctly traced among the trees,
and the elevation from the bottom of the trench to the top of
the embankment was about four feet. The stump of a decayed

CHENANGO COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 47

pine which stood upon the wall exhibited one hundred and
ninety-five cortical layers, and there were many more which
could not be counted, as the heart of the tree alone remained.
Probably the tree was three or four hundred years old — cer
tainly more than two hundred. It probably stood many years
after it had completed its growth, and it is reasonable to sup
pose that some time elapsed from the period of the construc
tion of the work to the commencement of the growth of the tree.

" Probably the work was encircled with palisades, but no
traces of the wood were discoverable. The situation was very
eligible, elevated, commanding a fine prospect, and having no
eminence near from which it could be commanded. No im
plements or utensils have been found, except some fragments
of coarse pottery, roughly ornamented. The Indians have a
tradition that the family of the Antones, which is supposed to
belong to the Tuscarora nation, is the seventh generation from
the inhabitants of this fort ; but of its origin they know nothing.

" There is also a place at Norwich in this county, on a high
bank of the river, called ' the Castle,' where the Indians lived
at the period of our settlement of the country, and where some
vestiges of a fortification appear, but in all probability of much
more modern date than those at Oxford."

In Greene township, about two miles below the village, was
formerly a mound of some interest. It was situated about
thirty rods back from the bank of the Chenango River, and
was originally about six feet in height and forty in diameter.
" Until within a few years a large pine stump stood on its top,
and a variety of trees covered it when first discovered.
One of these showed two hundred consecutive growths. An
examination of the mound was made in 1829 by excavation.
Great numbers of human bones were found ; and beneath them,
at a greater depth, others were found which had evidently been
burned. No conjecture could be formed of the number of bo
dies deposited here. The skeletons were found lying without
order, and so much decayed as to crumble on exposure. At

48 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

one point in the mound a large number, perhaps two hundred,
arrow-heads were discovered, collected in a heap. They were
of the usual form, and of yellow or black flint. Another pile,
of sixty or more, was found in another place, in the same
mound ; also a silver band or ring, about two inches in diame
ter, wide but thin, and with what appeared to be the remains
of a reed pipe within it. A number of stone gouges or chisels,
of different shapes, and a piece of mica, cut in the form of a
heart, the border much decayed and the laminae separated, were
also discovered."*

It may be mentioned here, that the character of the lower
deposit, and also some of the relics, coincide with some of those
found in the mounds of the Mississippi Valley. The ancient
mound-builders often burned their dead. The upper and
principal collection of bones had probably a comparatively late
date, as is shown by the silver bracelet, which, it is presumed,
although not so expressly stated, was found with this deposit.

CAYUGA COUNTY.

PLATE V. No. 1.

Ancient Work near Auburn, New York.

ONE of the best preserved and most interesting works in the
State, is that overlooking the flourishing town of Auburn. It
is situated upon a commanding eminence, which rises abruptly
from the level grounds upon which the town is built, to the
height of perhaps one hundred feet. It is the most elevated
spot in the vicinity, and commands a wide and very beautiful
prospect. The ground occupied by the work subsides gently
from the centre of the area ; but exterior to the walls are steep

* Annals of Binghampton.

A 'I/BURN, CAYUGA C? MY.

s as. fa<*s.

MEMTZ TP. C/4YUGA C?MY.

CAYUGA COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 49

acclivities and deep ravines, rendering approach in nearly every
direction extremely difficult. These natural features are indi
cated in the plan, which obviates the necessity for a detailed
description. Upon the south are several deep gulleys, separated
by sharp, narrow ridges, rendering ascent at this point, in the
face of determined defenders, entirely impracticable. It has
been conjectured by some that the walls here have been washed
away ; but it is clear that there was slight necessity for any
defences at this point, and that none ever existed beyond what
may still be traced.

The number and relative proportions of the gateways or
openings are correctly shown in the plan. That upon the north
is one hundred and sixty feet wide ; that upon the east sixty
feet, and that upon the west thirty feet. These wide, unpro
tected spaces would seem to conflict with the supposition, so
well sustained by its remaining features, that the work had a
defensive origin. It is not improbable, however, that palisades
extended across these openings, as well as crowned the embank
ments ; for without such additions, as has been already observed,
the best of these structures could have afforded but very slight
protection.

The embankments of this work are now between two and three
feet in height, and the trenches of corresponding depth. The
area of the work and the ground around it are covered with
forest trees. There are several depressions, which, probably,
were the caches of the ancient occupants.*

It is said that a number of relics have been recovered here
from time to time, and among others the head of a banner-staff
of thin iron, fourteen inches long and ten broad. It is, of course,
of French or English origin, and was probably lost or buried
here by the Indians, into whose hands, by purchase or capture,

* This work has an accidental approach to regularity ; but it is far
from being a true ellipsis, as has been supposed by some who have vis
ited it.

3

50 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

it had fallen. We may perhaps refer it back to the days of
Champlain and Frontenac, when the armies of France swept
the shores of the western lakes, in the vain hope of laying the
foundation of a Gallic empire in America. This relic is now
in the possession of Mr. J. W. Chedell, of Auburn.

McCauley, in his History of New York, presents the sub
joined facts bearing upon the question of the probable antiquity
of this work, which may not be without their interest. He says :
" We examined the stump of a chestnut tree in the moat, which
was three feet two inches in diameter, at a point two feet and
a half above the surface of the earth. A part of the trunk of
the same tree was lying by the stump. As this tree had been
cut down, we endeavored to ascertain its age ; and for this
purpose we counted the rings or concentric circles, and found
them to amount to two hundred and thirty-five. The centre
of the tree was hollow, or rather decayed ; and estimating this
part as equal to thirty more layers or growths, we calculated
the entire age of the tree to be two hundred and fifty-five
years. About five years had' elapsed since the tree was cut
down. This was in 1825, and would carry back the date of
the work to 1555.

" At the distance of three paces from this stump was another
of chestnut, standing in the ditch. It exceeded three feet in
diameter, and the tree must have died standing, and probably
remained in that position many years before it fell, from decay.
In our opinion, the tree dated back as far as the discovery of
the continent. Besides, it may be conjectured, for aught we
know to the contrary, that several growths of forest intervened
between the abandonment of this work and the date of the
present forest."*

About two miles northeast of the work above described, upon
elevated ground, was another similar work. It is now entirely
leveled, and its site can only be ascertained by the fragments

* History of New York, Vol. I., p. 112.

CAYUGA COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 51

of pottery which are scattered over the ground. It was visible
in 1825, when it was visited by McCauley, who says:

" It inclosed about two acres, and had a rampart, ditch,
and gateway. It is now nearly obliterated by the plough. In
its original state, or the condition it was in thirty-five years
ago, about the time the land was cleared, the rampart was sev
en feet high, and the ditch ten feet wide and three deep. Two
persons, the one standing in the ditch, and the other within
the inclosure, were unable to see each other. The gateway
was on the northeastern side, in the direction of a spring which
flowed close by. The work was three hundred and fifty paces
in circumference."

PLATE V. No. 2.

Ancient Work, Mentz Township, Cayuga County^ New York.

Six miles northwest of Auburn, and three miles from Troops-
ville, in the township of Mentz, is the small but well preserved
work of which a plan is here given. The country around is
hilly, and the work itself is built upon the crest of a narrow
ridge, which extends nearly north and south, and along which
the main road passes. There is a hollow, with springs flowing
into it. toward the left ; in which direction, it will be observed,
a gateway opens. Although the ground has been for many
years under cultivation, the lines of embankment are still be
tween two and three feet high. A quantity of relics, some of
comparatively late date, have been found here. Some skele
tons, also, have been disclosed by the plough, both within and
without the walls. The plan obviates the necessity for any
further description.

The existence of this work does not seem to have been hith
erto known, beyond the secluded vicinity in which it occurs.
It is, however, probable that it is the one alluded to by McCau-

52

ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

ley in the following very indefinite terms : " On the east side
of the Seneca River, near Montezuma, there are still to be seen
the ruins of a small fort. A small mound occurs not far from
the fort j it is artificial." Montezuma is situated in the same
township with the work above described, and about four miles
distant, in a northwestern direction. In the " New York Mag
azine," for 1792, mention is made of a couple of ancient works,
said to occur south of Cross and Salt Lakes, east of the Seneca
River, and falling probably within the limits of the present
township of Brutus in Cayuga. or Elbridge in Onondaga county.
One of these was in the " form of a parallelogram, two hundred
and twenty yards long and fifty-five broad, with openings on
either side, one of which led to the waters. Half a mile south
was another work of crescent form; large trees were growing
upon both." Quantities of well-burned pottery in fragments
were found there ; also a slab of stone five feet long, three and
a half broad, and six inches thick, upon which were some rude
tracings, specimens perhaps of the "picture writing" of the
Indians.

McCauley mentions an ancient work near the town of Aurora,
in the southern part of this county, and near Cayuga Lake.
According to this authority, it was situated " two miles from
the village, in a southwesterly direction ; the area triangular,
and containing two acres. Two of its sides were defended by
precipitous banks, and the third by an embankment and ditch.
Fragments of earthen vessels and the bones of animals had been
found there enveloped in beds of ashes."

There are traces of an ancient palisaded work of the Cayugas,
in Ledyard township, about four miles southeast of Springport.
In fact, the whole country has numerous vestiges, cemeteries,
etc., of its aboriginal possessors.

VI.

XT? 1

AKKEDHKIT

/VfAR ELM IRA, CHEMUNG CoAf.Y.

£ H If or s ford, ale I,

/ M/LC f Of CAMANOA/GVA
ONTAA/O COl/#rY,/KY.

SCALE
2OOft to the Inch

CHEMUNG COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 53

CHEMUNG COUNTY.

THERE is a work in this county which possesses peculiar in
terest, from the circumstance that the embankments still retain
unmistakable traces of the palisades with which it was crowned,
thus demonstrating the correctness of the conjectures already
indulged in, as to the probable construction of the entire system
of earth-works of Western New York. The accompanying plan
and description are from the note-books of Prof. E. N. Hors-
ford, of Harvard University, who visited this work in company
with other gentlemen connected with the State Geological Sur
vey, at the time that enterprise was in progress.

PLATE VI. No. 1.

Ancient Work near Elmira, Chemung County, New York.

" THIS work is situated about two and a half miles west of
Elmira, upon the summit of an eminence, the base of which,
upon one side, is washed by Chemung River, and upon the
other by the waters of a deep and almost impassable ravine.
It is, in fact, a bold headland. The approach is by a narrow
path, which in some places will admit of the passage of a single
person only, and which traverses the very abrupt crown of the
ridge. Toward the top, the ascent is more gradual, and the
ground continues to ascend slightly until we reach the defences.
The site chosen exhibits the strongest proof of design, being
such as to command a most extensive view along the course
of the river, and being, except from behind, accessible only by
the difficult pathway already mentioned.

(i The artificial defences consist of an embankment, with an
outer ditch, which extends, as shown in the plan, from the steep

54 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

bank toward the river, to the brow of the ravine upon the
other side. This embankment is about two hundred feet long,
fourteen feet broad at the base, and about three and a half feet
high. The rotting stump of an old pine tree, three feet in di
ameter, and a yellow pine tree, nine feet in circumference, are
standing upon the wall, and indicate its high antiquity.

u What appeared to be a furrow was observed extending
along the summit of the embankment throughout its entire
length. Upon examination, it was found that this appearance
was produced by a succession of holes, about a foot in depth.
Just within this chain of holes is another parallel chain, not
quite so distinct as the first. Still further inward, and extend
ing but part of the way across the area of the work, are several
parallel furrows, without accompanying ridges, the design of
which is hardly apparent.

It will be seen that this work corresponds entirely in position
with most of the earth-works of the State, was chosen with ref
erence to the same principles, and was defended in precisely
the same manner. It is peculiar in still retaining the holes
left by the decay of the palisades, which show that it was
strengthened by a double line. It is rational to conclude, upon
general principles, that all the works of the State were protected
in like manner ; although, except in this instance, all traces of
the wooden superstructure have disappeared. As already ob
served, this work, for the positive light which it throws upon
the original character of these ancient defences, is probably the
most interesting one in the State.

ONTARIO COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. OD

ONTARIO COUNTY.

PLATE VI. No. 2.

Ancient Work near Canandaigua.

ONE mile east of the town of Canandaigua, upon the slope of
a hill overlooking Canandaigua Lake, is the work here figured.
It is unsurpassed for the beauty of its position. A considerable
portion of the embankment has been obliterated by cultivation,
and another portion by the turnpike road, from Canandaigua
to Geneva, which passes through it. The parts which may yet
be traced are appropriately indicated in the plan, and enable
us to make out the original form of the work with sufficient ex
actness. In constructing the road, human bones in considerable
quantities were disclosed on the brow of the hill, accompanied
by the usual rude relics of Indian art. It is mentioned by
Mr. Schoolcraft, that the Senecas deduce their descent from
the remarkable eminence upon which this work is situated.*

Between three and four miles west of Canandaigua, on the
road to Victor, there is a long, narrow trench running nearly
in a direction from N. E. to S. W. It may be traced, with
occasional interruptions, for some miles, and has been errone
ously, but very generally, believed to be a work of art. It
marks the line of a long, narrow fissure in the limestone sub
stratum, into which the earth has subsided. The water which
accumulates in it sinks, to swell the volume of so*me subterra
neous stream. The cause of this singular fissure is worthy of
the inquiries of geologists.

Judge Porter, of Niagara, mentions another ancient inclosure,
similar to that above described, in the vicinity of Canandaigua;
but its locality could not be ascertained. It is probably now
completely destroyed.

* Notes on the Iroquois, p. 196.

56 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

PLATE VII. No. 1.

Ancient Work near the City of Geneva.

ONE and a half miles west of Geneva are the traces of the old
Indian " Castle " of Ganundesdga, built by the Senecas, and
destroyed by Sullivan in 1779. Near it is a mound thickly
covered over with graves. A plan and description of this work
will be given in another connection. About two miles beyond,
in the same direction, in Seneca township, is another work of
more ancient date, a plan of which is here presented. It is
situated upon elevated grounds, and coincides generally with
those already described. The position, upon the east side, is
protected by a steep, natural bank, perhaps sixty feet in height,
which subsides into low, marshy grounds. At the foot of the
bank is a copious and perennial spring. Upon the west, south,
and north, the ground falls off gently ; and here we find the
artificial defences. Although the whole has been for some time
under cultivation, the lines of entrenchment may be followed
throughout nearly their entire extent, without difficulty. The
usual evidences of ancient occupancy are found within the area.

Half a mile further to the westward, upon a corresponding
site, are the traces of an ancient palisaded work, which will be
described in its appropriate place.

MONROE COUNTY.

A NUMBER of aboriginal monuments formerly existed in this
county ; but, with the exception of a few small mounds, they
have been wholly obliterated, or so much defaced that they can
no longer be made out. Two mounds occupy the high, sandy
grounds to the westward of Irondequoit Bay, where it con-

PLATE, VI I.

? i

SCAL£ .

(3V3 Hf. JV. w: Of Geneva-.^
ONTARIO C? MY.

• SAHONY * IHAJOH . H.

MONROE COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 57

nects with Lake Ontario. The point is a remarkable one.
The position of the mounds in respect to the natural features
around them is indicated in the accompanying sketch, Plate
VIL, No. 2.

They are small, the largest not exceeding five feet in height.
It was found, upon excavation, that they had been previously dis
turbed ; and their examination proved fruitless. Some bits of
charcoal and a few small fragments of bones were observed
mingled with the sand. At various places, upon the eleva
tions around them, were scattered fragments of pottery, and
arrow-heads and other rude relics are also of frequent occur
rence here.

The spot was evidently a favorite one with the Indians, the
vicinity abounding in fish and game.

The waves of the lake have thrown up a narrow bar or bank
of sand, called the " Spit" which extends nearly across the
mouth of the bay, leaving but a small opening. Upon this bar
a few scattered trees are standing, and it was here that the
Marquis De Nonville landed with his troops, at the time of his
expedition against the Senecas, in 1687. He constructed a
stockade at or near this point.

Upon the eastern shore of the bay, and occupying a position
corresponding with that of the mounds already described, it is
said there is another mound of considerable size. It was opened
many years ago, and was found to contain human bones.

Some eight or ten miles to the southeast, and half a mile
east of the village of Penfield, on the banks of Irondequoit
Creek, is still another mound, situated upon a headland, which
now projects into an artificial pond. It must have been origi
nally eight or nine feet in height, by perhaps forty feet base.
It is a favorite haunt of " money-diggers," by whom it has been
pretty thoroughly excavated. A shaft had been sunk in it but
a short time before it was visited by the author ; and at that
period many fragments of human bones, much decayed, which
had been thrown up from near the base, were bleaching upon the
3*

DO ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

surface. The soil is here light and sandy, and a depression is
still visible near by, marking the spot whence the material com
posing the mound was procured. It could not be ascertained
that any relics of art were obtained here. See Plate VII. ,
Fig. 3.

As already observed, most, if not all, of the ancient works
which existed in this county are now obliterated. We can
consequently do but little more than indicate the sites which
they occupied according to the best information obtained from
the early settlers. It is asserted that an inclosure of con
siderable size exists in the town of Irondequoit, west of Iron-
dequoit Bay, and near the Genesee River, about five miles
north of Rochester. A day was spent in search of it, but with
out success. Its discovery may reward the perseverance of
some future explorer.*

A fine work once occupied a commanding site at the point
known as " Handford's Landing," three miles north of Roches
ter. It consisted of a semicircular embankment, the ends of
which extended to the very edge of the immense ravine which
shuts in the Genesee River below the falls at Rochester. It
had three narrow gateways placed at irregular intervals.

There is a locality in the town of Parma, about seven miles
west of Rochester, where the earth has subsided into the fis
sures of the sand rock, forming what has generally been sup
posed to be a line of entrenchments. From some distance the
apparent ditch has all the regularity of a work of art ; but still
it is hard to understand how it came to be regarded as an
" Indian Fort," by which name it is currently known in the
neighborhood. It would seem incredible that errors of this
kind should become general, had not a large experience shown
that upon no class of subjects do the mass of men exercise so lit-

* McCauley states that there is an ancient work on Irondequoit Bay,
in Penfield township, on the north side of the " ridge." No informa
tion could be obtained concerning it.

MONROE COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 59

tie sound judgment, as upon those which relate to the history
and monuments of the past.

In the town of Ogden, which adjoins Parma on the south,
it is reputed that some ancient works are to be found ; but
from the best information which could be obtained, it seems
probable that the report has no better foundation than hun
dreds of similar ones, subsequently found to be erroneous, and
originated, it is very likely, in the discovery of an Indian cem
etery, or of the traces of an Indian village.

Ascending the valley of the Genesee for twenty miles, we
come to a section of country which is very rich in evidences of
aboriginal occupancy, but chiefly such as may be referred to a
comparatively late date. In the town of Wheatland, and a
short distance to the westward of the village of Scottsville,
there formerly existed two very interesting earth-works.
There is scarcely a trace of them now to be seen. They
were visited by Kirkland in 1788. He found the first
work " about two miles west of Allen's residence, which was
an extensive flat, at a deserted Indian village near the junction
of a creek (Allen's Creek) with the Genesee, eight miles north
of the old Indian village of Kanawageas, and five miles north
of the Magic Spring (Caledonia Springs), so called by the
Indians, who believed its waters had the power of petrifying
all things subjected to its influence. This work inclosed about
six acres, and had six gates. The ditch was about eight feet
wide, and in some places six feet deep, and drawn in a circular
form on three sides. The fourth side was defended by nature
with a high bank, at the foot of which was a fine stream of
water. The bank had probably been secured by a stockade,
as there appeared to have been a deep covered way in the mid
dle of it, down to the water. Some of the trees on the work V
appeared to be two or three hundred years old."

The usual variety of relics, fragments of pottery, stone chip-
pings, etc., have been found upon the site of this work. About half
a mile south of this, and upon a greater eminence, Mr. Kirkland

60 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

traced another work, " of less dimensions than the first, but
with a deeper ditch, and in a situation more lofty and defen
sible." Although it is well remembered by the older settlers
in the neighborhood, nothing now remains to indicate that it
ever existed, except the greater abundance of stones on the
line of the former embankment. The position is such as the
builders of these works usually selected for their defences.
Upon one side is a high and precipitous bank, at the base of
which flows Allen's Creek ; and in every other direction the
ground slopes gently. It is altogether a well chosen and very
beautiful site. About three miles south of these works, on the
bank of the Genesee River, and probably falling in Caledonia
township, Livingston county, are to be observed the traces of
a mound. It was originally about eight feet high, and was
filled with human bones heaped promiscuously together. Still
another mound is said to occur a few miles N. W. of Scotts-
ville, in the town of Chili.

Near the village of West Rush, in the town of Rush, upon
the banks of Honeoye Creek, were formerly two considerable
inclosures. One of these was situated immediately upon the
bank of the creek, which defended it upon one side ; while the
other occupied higher ground a hundred rods to the south
ward. Each contained about four acres, and the embankments
were originally four feet in height. A few slight depressions
indicating the ancient caches, with fragments of pottery scat
tered around, alone remain to mark the sites of these structures.

The whole of this country was occupied by the Senecas ; and
their cemeteries, and the traces of their ancient forts and
towns, are particularly numerous along the Genesee River, and
on the banks of the Honeoye. We shall refer to these in
another place.

LIVINGSTON COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 61

LIVINGSTON COUNTY.

THIS county, which adjoins Monroe on the south, was also a
favorite ground with the Senecas. It is unsurpassed in beauty
and fertility by any territory of equal extent in the State, and
abounds with mementoes of its aboriginal possessors, who
yielded it reluctantly into the hands of the invading whites.
Here, too, once existed a considerable number of ancient earth
works, but the leveling plough has passed over most of them ;
and though their sites are still remembered by the early
settlers, but few are sufficiently well preserved to admit of ex
act survey and measurement.

"In 1798," said the venerable Judge Augustus Porter, of
Niagara, in a letter to 0. H. Marshall, Esq., of Buffalo. " I
surveyed the Indian Reservation of Kanawageas. There were
then in the open flats of the Reservation the embankments of
an old fort, which included very nearly two acres. It corres
ponded in situation and appearance with many others which I
have seen in this part of the country, and which seem to bear
a high antiquity." The Kanawageas Reservation embraced
the township of York in this county.

Judge Porter also mentioned that he knew of two other works
on the " Smith and Jones's Flat," near Mount Morris, (also in
Livingston county,) all of which had the same appearance.

A work also occurs in the town of Avon, not far from the
beautiful village of Avon Springs, upon the flats of the Gene-
see River. It is described by W. H. C. Hosmer, Esq., in the
notes to his beautiful poem of " YONONDIO."

Another and very similar work once existed in the north
eastern part of Avon township, about two and a half miles from
the village of Lima. Some portions of the lines may yet be
traced, but with difficulty.

62 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

PLATE VIII. No. 1.

Ancient Work, Livonia Township, Livingston County, New

York.

THE work here represented occurs in the township of Livo
nia, three miles N. E. of the village of that name. It is situ
ated upon the summit of a commanding hill, and is the largest
inclosure which fell under the notice of the author, within the
limits of the State. It has an area of not less than sixteen
acres. Where the lines of the entrenchment were crossed by
fences, and consequently preserved from the encroachments of
the plough, the embankment and ditch are distinctly visible.
Elsewhere, however, the outlines can only be traced by a very
gentle undulation of the ground, and by the denser verdure on
the course of the ancient trench. With the assistance of Mr.
Haddock, the proprietor of the estate, who knew the work be
fore it had been materially impaired, the original form was
made out with entire satisfaction. General Adams, who had
often been over the grounds before the removal of the forest,
states that the ditch was breast deep, and the embankment of
corresponding height. Caches were formerly discovered here,
and fragments of pottery are now abundant.

The inclosure had four gateways, one of which, at the north
western extremity, opened directly toward a copious spring
of water, as shown in the plan. It was thought by General
Adams, from certain indications (which might have been caused
by the decay of palisades), that slight parallel embankments
extended down the slope of the hill, and inclosed the spring
here referred to. Be that as it may, the position was well
chosen for defence, for which purpose the work was doubtless
constructed.

A mile and a half to the southward are remains of some old
fortified towns of the powerful tribe of the Senecas, for plans

vsrr

i.

m^siimmSmm

"m\Wy/IIJl\'

°/M'l\v' 'i.'/,'ll

sc/tic .
4 00 Feet to the Inc7i

uvoti/A TP. L/y/MGsroN c? w. Y.

LIVINGSTON COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 63

and descriptions of which the reader is referred to the chapter
on " Palisaded Works."

It is said that a mound, containing a large number of hu
man bones, occurs near the head of Hemlock Lake, in the
township of Springwater ; but no opportunity was afforded of
visiting it. At various places in the county large cemeteries
are found ; but most, if not all, of them may be with safety re
ferred to the Senecas. Indeed, many articles of European
origin accompany the skeletons. A cemetery of large size, and,
from the character of the relics found in the graves, of high
antiquity, is now in part covered by the village of Lima.
Pipes, pottery, etc., are discovered here in great abundance ;
and it is worthy of remark, they are identical with those found
within the ancient inclosures.

A number of ancient works are reported to exist higher up
the Genesee River, in the southern part of Livingston and in
Alleghany counties ; but this entire region has been brought
so thoroughly under cultivation, that it was esteemed hope
less to look for them with a view to their survey or measure
ment. The only information of any authentic kind which was
received in addition to what is here presented, relates to a re
markable work upon a high hill, not far from the falls of the
Genesee, in Alleghany county. Says Judge Porter, in a pri
vate letter dated Niagara Falls, November 18th, 1848 : " Upon
the west side of Genesee River, a mile or two above the falls,
there is a hill, the base of which may perhaps cover two acres
of ground, circular in form, and shaped like a sugar-loaf, with
a truncated summit a fourth of an acre in area. Upon this
summit is a breastwork. The height of the hill is between
eighty and one hundred feet. I visited it in 1798, before any
settlements were made by the whites nearer than Mount
Morris."

Mr. Moses Long, of Rochester, describes a work which is
substantially the same, as follows : " About four miles above
the village of Portage, in Alleghany county, is a circular mound

64 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

or hill, which rises probably a hundred feet above the sur
rounding interval or ' bottom ' lands. The acclivity is steep on
all sides. The Genesee River curves around its base, de
scribing nearly a semicircle, and then sweeps on in a tortuous
course to the cascades or cataracts below the village of Por
tage. The top of the hill is quite level, covered thinly with
small forest trees, and its area may comprise an acre. There
are appearances of an entrenchment around that part of the
summit unprotected by the river.

" My guide informed me that he had been acquainted with
Skongo, an aged chief, and several other Indians of the
Caneadea Reservation, who all concurred in saying, that they
had no knowledge nor any tradition in relation to this work.
Shongo remembered the invasion of Sullivan, when the Indians
cut up their corn and threw it into the river, and then re
treated with their movable effects a few miles up the stream
to the top of an elevated bluff, where they determined to await
the attack of their enemy. I came to the conclusion that the
entrenchment might have been made by an advanced detach
ment from Sullivan's army."

GENESEE COUNTY.

A NUMBER of very interesting remains formerly existed in
this county ; but few of them are sufficiently well preserved to
be satisfactorily traced.

In the town of Alabama, in the extreme northwest of the
county, were once three of these works, all of small size. The
plough has completely defaced them. This town adjoins the
town of Shelby, in Orleans county, on the south ; and touches
Newsted, in Erie county, on the west. It will ultimately be
seen that its ancient works constitute part of a chain extending

GENESEE COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 65

from the " Lake Ridge," on the north, to Buffalo Creek on the
southwest, a distance of fifty miles. Not less than twenty
ancient works are known to occur within this range.

PLATE VIII. No. 2.

Ancient Work, Oakfteld, Genesee County, New York.

IN the town of Oakfield, half a mile west of the little village
of Caryville, is found the ancient inclosure, a plan of which is
here given. It is remarkable as being the best preserved and
most distinct of any in the State which fell under the notice of
the author. It is situated upon the western slope of one of
the billowy hills which characterize the rolling lands of the
West, and between which the streams find their way to the
rivers and lakes. The banks of the little stream which washes
the work upon the north are steep, but not more than ten feet
in height. Upon the brow of the bank, where the stream ap
proaches nearest the work, the entrenchment is interrupted,
and the slope toward the water is more gentle than elsewhere
— indicating an artificial grade. The plan obviates the ne
cessity for a detailed description. The embankments will now
probably measure six feet in average height, calculating from
the bottom of the trench. In the part of the work under cul
tivation, it is easy to trace the ancient lodges. Here, too, is to
be found the unfailing supply of broken pottery. At the sides
of the principal gateway (a) leading into the inclosure from
the east, according to the statement of an intelligent aged gen
tleman, who was among the earliest settlers in this region,
traces of oaken palisades were found, upon excavation, some
thirty years ago. They were, of course, almost entirely de
cayed. A part of the area is still covered with the original
forest, in which are trees of the largest dimensions. An oaken
stump upwards of two feet in diameter stands upon the em
bankment at the point b.

66 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

About one mile northeast of this work was originally a large
inclosure, but which is now entirely destroyed. It was called
the " Bone Fort" from the circumstance that the early settlers
found within it a mound, six feet in height by thirty at the
base, which was entirely made up of human bones slightly cov
ered with earth. A few fragments of these bones, scattered
over the surface, alone mark the site of the aboriginal sepulchre.
The popular opinion concerning this accumulation is, that it
contained the bones of the slain, thus heaped together after
some severe battle. It will, however, be seen that it probably
owed its origin to the same practice to which we are to attribute
the " bone pits " found elsewhere, that of collecting together at
stated intervals the bones of the dead — a practice very preva
lent among the northwestern Indians.

There is no doubt but this is one of the works visited by
Rev. Samuel Kirkland, Missionary to the Senecas, in 1788.
His MS. Journal was in the possession of Messrs. Yates and
Moulton, who have given a synopsis of the part relating to this
group of remains in the subjoined passages.

" Having examined the works (already referred to, in Mon
roe county) on the Genesee, he returned to Kanawageas, and
resumed his journey west, encamping for the night at a place
called Joaika, i. e. Raccoon (Batavia). on the river Tonawande,
about twenty-six miles from Kanawageas. Six miles from this
place of encampment, he rode to the open fields, and arrived
at a place called by the Senecas Tegatainedaghgue, which im
ports a ' double-fortified town] or a town with a fort at each end.
Here he walked about half a mile with one of the Seneca chiefs,
to view the vestiges of this double-fortified town. They con
sisted of the remains of two forts : the first contained four acres
of ground ; the other, distant about two miles, at the other ex
tremity of the ancient town, inclosed about eight acres. The
ditch around the first was about five or six feet deep. A small
stream of water and a high bank circumscribed nearly one third
of the inclosed ground. There were traces of six gates or open-

GENESEE COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 67

ings, and near the centre a way was dug to the water. The
ground on the opposite side of the water was in some places
nearly as high as that on which the fort was built, which might
render this covered way to the water necessary. A considerable
number of large thrifty oaks had grown up within the inclosed
ground, both in the ditch and upon the wall ; some of which
appeared to be two hundred years old or more. The ground
is of a hard, gravelly kind, intermixed with loam, and more
plentifully at the brow of the hill. At some places at the bot
tom of the ditch. Mr. Kirkland ran his cane a foot or more in
the soil ; from which circumstance he concludes that the ditch
was much deeper originally.

" Near the western fortification, which was situated on high
ground, he found the remains of a funeral pile, where the slain
were buried after a great battle, which will be spoken of here
after. The mound was about six feet in height by thirty feet
diameter at the base. The bones appeared at the surface, pro
jecting at many places at the sides.

"Pursuing his course toward Buffalo Creek, (his ultimate
destination.) Mr. Kirkland discovered the vestiges of another
fortified town. He does not delineate it in his MSS., but says:
' On these heights, near the ancient fortified town, the roads
part ; we left the path leading to Niagara on our right, and
went a course nearly southwest for Buffalo Creek. After leav
ing these heights, which afforded an extensive prospect, we
traveled over a fine tract of land for about six or seven miles,
then came to a barren, white-oak, shrub plain. We passed a
steep hill on our right, in some places fifty feet perpendicular,
at the bottom of which is a small lake, affording another instance
of pagan superstition. The old Indians affirm that formerly a
demon, in the form of a dragon, resided in this lake, which fre
quently disgorged balls of liquid fire. To appease him, many
sacrifices of tobacco had been made by the Indians. At the
extremity of the barren plain, we came again to Tonawande
River, and forded it about two miles above the Indian town of

68

ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

that name. At a short distance on the south side of the same
stream, is another fortification.' "

FIG. II.

Ancient Work, Le Roy, Genesee County, New York.

REMNANTS of another ancient work occur in the town of Le
Roy, three miles north of the village of the same name, in the
southeastern part of this county. The accompanying sketch,

GENESEE COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. DU

by L. H. Morgan, Esq., of Rochester, although not from an ex
act instrumental survey, is sufficiently accurate for all essential
purposes.

The position which the work occupies is a portion of a high
plain or table-land, nearly surrounded by deep ravines, bounded
by Fordham's Brook and Allen's Creek, which effect a junction
at this point. These streams have worn their beds through
the various strata of lime and sandstone to the depth of from
seventy to one hundred feet, leaving abrupt banks difficult of
ascent.. These natural features are best illustrated by the
plan, which precludes the necessity for a minute description.

The peninsula measures about 1300 feet from north to
south, by 2000 feet at its broadest part, and 1000 feet across
the neck connecting it with the general table. Positions simi
lar to this were often selected by the aborigines for defensive
purposes, but in such cases have usually an embankment and
trench extending across the isthmus. In this instance, how
ever, the only trace of art is an embankment and ditch, about
1500 feet in length, and running nearly east and west across
the broadest part of the peninsula, and not very far back from
the edge of the ravine. The part which is laid down in the
plan is said to be still very distinct ; the embankment being
between three and four feet in height, and the ditch of cor
responding depth. The western extremity of the line curves
gently outward, and extends some distance down the bank,
which is at this point less abrupt than elsewhere. It is said
that formerly trenches existed on the courses indicated by
dotted lines on the plan ; but the statement is not confirmed
by any remaining traces,

A number of skeletons have been found here, together with
many fragments of pottery. There have also been discovered
some heaps of small stones ; which have been supposed to be
the missiles of the ancient occupants of the hill, thus got to
gether to be used in case of attack. Various relics of art,
pipes, beads, stone hatchets, arrow-heads, etc., have been dis-

70 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

closed here by the operations of agricul
ture. One of the pipes composed of
baked clay is now in the possession of
Rev. C. Dewey, of Rochester. It is
represented of half size in the accompa
nying engraving, Fig. 8. The material
is very fine, and the workmanship good ;
so good indeed, as to induce some doubt
of its aboriginal origin. Another pipe
carved from granular limestone was
found here, as were also a number of
beads, long and coarse, made of clay and
burned.

According to Mr. Dewey, " the trench
was estimated by the early observers at
from eight to ten feet deep, and as many
wide. The earth in making it had been thrown either way,
but much of it inward. The road formerly crossed it by a
bridge. "When first known, forest trees were standing both in
the trench and on its sides. In size and growth they cor
responded with the forests around them. Prostrate upon the
ground were numerous trunks of the heart-wood of black cherry
trees of larger size, which, it is conjectured, were the remains
of more antique forests, preceding the growth of beech and
maple. They were in such a state of soundness as to be em
ployed for timber by the early settlers."*

From all that remains of this work, it is impossible to con
jecture for what purposes it was constructed. Indeed, it bears
so few evidences of design, that we are led to distrust its arti
ficial origin ; a distrust which is strengthened by the circum
stance, that in a number of instances, elevations and depres
sions bearing some degree of regularity, but resulting from fis
sures in a rock substratum or other natural causes, have been

* Schoolcraft's Notes on the Iroquois, p. 203.

ORLEANS COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 71

mistaken for works of art. The fact that the trench in this
instance has a course so nearly parallel with .the edge of the
ravine, is also a suspicious circumstance. The spot was not
visited by the author; but he is authorized in saying that
Prof. Dewey, who gave the first and most complete account of
the supposed work, is now inclined to the opinion that it may
be the result of natural causes.

On what is called the " Knowlton Farm," about one mile
south of the town of Batavia,.is a small natural elevation which
was used as a burial-place by the Indians. It has been mis
taken for a mound. Various relics have been discovered in
ploughing over it.

ORLEANS COUNTY.

IT is not known that many ancient remains occur in this
county. There is, however, an interesting work in Shelby
township, one and a half miles west of Shelby Centra The
following account of it was communicated by Dr. S. M. Bur
roughs, of Medina, to 0. Turner, Esq., of Buffalo, by whom it
was presented to the author.

" It consists of a ditch and embankment, inclosing, in a
form nearly circular, about three acres of ground. The ditch
is still well defined and several feet in depth. Adjoining this
fortification on the south is a swamp, about one mile in width
by two in length ; which was once*, if not a lake, an impassable
morass. There is a passage-way through the lines of the en
trenchment toward the swamp, and this is the sole gateway
discoverable. Large quantities of small stones, of a size to be
thrown with the hand, are accumulated in piles within and near
the work: Here, too, are many arrow-heads of flint (silex), stone
axes, and fragments of pottery, exhibiting ornaments in relief.
Human skeletons almost entire have been exhumed here.

72 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

Half a mile west of the fort on a sand hill, an immense number
of skeletons have been found in a very perfect state. Many
seem to have been deposited in the same grave. As some of
the skulls appear to have been broken by clubs or tomahawks,
is it not probable that this was the site of some great battle ?"

ERIE COUNTY.

ERIE county ranks next to Jefferson in the number of its
ascertained aboriginal monuments. The topographical features
of the two counties are much the same, although the former is
by far the least elevated. Along the shores of Lake Erie and
bordering Buffalo Creek are low and fertile alluvions ; back of
these we come to the limestone formation, and the country rises,
forming a second grand terrace, along the brow of which most
of the ancient works are situated. Within the limits of the
late Seneca Reservation, which has been only in part brought
under cultivation, there are a number of ancient works, which
are unimpaired except by the operation of natural causes. It
is extremely difficult, however, to find them, in consequence of
the forest and the thick undergrowth. As the Reservation
is cleared up, no doubt new ones will be discovered ; and it is
to be hoped sufficient interest in these matters may be found to
exist among the citizens of Buffalo, to secure their prompt and
careful investigation

PLATE DC Wo. y.

NEAR BUFFALO, ERIE, C? N.Y
B.G-. Sgui

, a. Grave of SU<Z Jacket
\ A, ,i „ Mat-yifemifor
'. Ct fifpres&i.ons, na.fu.rctj

ERIE COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC.

73

PLATE IX. No. 1.

Ancient Work near Buffalo.

ONE of the most interesting works in this county is that here
represented. It derives much of its interest from the associa
tions connected with it. The site which it occupies was a fa
vorite spot with the Senecas, and one of their largest cemeteries
occurs within its walls. Here is buried an Indian chief whose
name is inseparably interwoven with the history of the Five
Nations. He was a man who possessed a rare combination of
talents, which, developed under different circumstances, would
have secured for him a high position among the greatest states
men and proudest orators of the world. This is hardly a proper
place to speak of his character ; but his devoted patriotism, his
inflexible integrity, the unwavering firmness, calm and lofty
dignity, and powerful eloquence with which he opposed the en
croachments of the whites, notwithstanding that he knew all
resistance was vain and hopeless — command an involuntary
tribute to the memory of the last and noblest of the proud and
politic Iroquois, the haughty and unbending Red Jacket, who
died exulting that the Great Spirit had made him an Indian !
Here, too, is buried Mary Jemison, " the white woman," who,
taken a prisoner by the Indians when a child, conformed to
their habits, became the wife of one of their chiefs, and remained
with them until her death. The story of her life is one of the
most eventful of those connected with our border history, filled
as it is with thrilling adventures and startling incidents.

The work under notice is situated upon the edge of the second
terrace, which is here moderately elevated above the fertile al
luvions bordering Buffalo Creek. The particular spot which
it occupies is considerably higher than any other near it, and
the soil is sandy and dry. It will be seen that the terrace
bank upon one side is made to subserve the purposes for which
the trench and embankment were erected upon the others.
4

74 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

There is now no direct evidence to that effect ; but no doubt
can be entertained that, in common with all the other works of
the State, the wall was crowned with palisades, which were also
carried along the brow of the terrace. The greater portion of
this work has been for some time under cultivation ; and the
original lines are so much defaced, that they would probably
escape the notice of the careless observer. They may, never
theless, be distinctly traced throughout their extent. At the
point nearest the Indian cemetery, a portion of which is still
spared by the plough, the embankment is very distinct, and
cannot fail to attract attention. At a short distance to the
northward of the work is a low spot of ground or marsh, toward
which opens a gateway. From this was probably obtained a
portion of the supply of water required by the ancient occu
pants of the work. A number of springs start from the foot
of the terrace, where the ground is also marshy. Within the
walls of this work are to be found the various traces of occu
pancy which I have already mentioned, sites of old lodges,
fragments of pottery, etc.

Tradition fixes upon this spot as the scene of the final and
most bloody conflict between the Iroquois and the " Gah-kwas"
or Eries — a tradition which has been supposed to derive some
sanction from the number of fragments of decayed human bones
which are scattered over the area.

The old mission-house and church stand in close proximity
to this work. The position of the former is indicated in the
plan. Red Jacket's house stood above a third of a mile to the
southward upon the same elevation ; and the abandoned coun
cil-house is still standing, perhaps a mile distant, in the direction
of Buffalo. A little distance beyond, in the same direction and
near the public road, is a small mound, called " Dah-do-sot"
artificial hill, by the Indians, who it is said were accustomed to
regard it with much veneration, supposing that it covered the
victims slain in some bloody conflict in the olden time. A
genuine representative of the Celtic stock had selected it as the

PLATE IX 3W. 2.3.

JV? 2

tp

LANCASTER TP. ERIE CO. NEW YORK

' ^^M^fev:

• o o> ^ ^ -•

or^- f^ «•

^•°fv&-

IVa MILE. S.E. OF N<? 2
S'atne Toivttship.

2 OOft to the Inch

ERIE COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 75

site of his cabin, and his worthy but somewhat superstitious
spouse was much horrified at the intimation that it probably
contained the bones of the unsanctified heathen. A shaft was
sunk near the foundation of the cabin to the base of the mound,
but nothing of interest was disclosed. A few half-formed ar
row-heads, some chippings of horn stone, and some small bits
of charcoal were discovered, intermingled with the soil thrown
from the excavation. Whatever deposits are contained in the
mound, if any, probably occur immediately beneath the apex
which is occupied by the cabin of the Celt aforesaid. Its in
vestigation is therefore reserved for the hands of some future
explorer. It was originally between five and six feet in height
by thirty-five or forty feet base, and is composed of the adjacent
loam. A depression still exists upon one side, marking the
spot whence the material was obtained.

PLATE IX. No. 2.

Ancient Work, Lancaster, Erie County, New York.

IT is not known that any Ancient remains occur nearer the
work last described than the one here presented, which is
situated upon lot No. 2, of the late Reservation, about four
miles southeast of the village of Lancaster, near Little Bufia-
lo Creek. It occurs upon the summit of a small eminence, in
the midst of a dense and tangled forest, and is reached by a
bridle path which passes through it. It approaches more near
ly to the form of a true circle than any work which fell under
the observation of the author in Western New York. It is
small, containing less than an acre. The embankment is how
ever very distinct, being not less than three feet in height, and
the ditch of equal, depth. Trees, corresponding in all respects
with those of the surrounding forest, are standing within the

76 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

area and upon the wall. The ground is here gravelly and dry.
A number of caches of considerable size were observed within
the inclosure.

PLATE IX. No. 3.

Ancient Work, Lancaster, Erie County, New York.

HALF a mile to the southeast of the above work, and, as
nearly as could be ascertained, on lot No. 6, is a work of larger
size and more irregular outline. It occupies a beautiful level
spot of ground not far from the edge of the second terrace
back from the creek. The embankment is somewhat higher
than that of the previous work, and, with a single exception,
quite as well defined as any observed within the State. It is
very slightly reduced from its original height, which may be
estimated as having been between seven and nine feet, measur
ing from the bottom of the ditch. At the point indicated by
the letter a upon the embankment, is standing the stump of a
withered pine tree, which is sixteen feet in circumference six
feet above the roots. A few rods to the southward of the work
is a narrow ravine leading off toward Little Buffalo Creek.
Within this is a spring from which flows a small stream. It
will be observed that two of the gateways of the work, placed
not far apart, open in this direction — leading to the inference
that it was here that the water used by the ancient occupants
was obtained. A number of large caches also occur within this
work.

PLATE X.

."oT^ ^3 ^ cX?
^ •> LL v „ <" ^ -

• . . ".x«dL, v<0 ^

Ijfc
u

l^y/o ". Ho-. . ^.^

!^o?^5^-

^K^^II
i^^£& '

y BANK OF LITTLE BUFFALO CftffK

LANCASTER TP ERIEC'N.Y.
/in. 2«& In

CLARENCE TP. £ft/£ COUNTY /V.Y.
2/2 M. ,5! <7/- Clawice Hollow .

rrV%v*

AMEOIIOsQ'B'

CLARENCE,
ffiM.S of Oar-ewe

ERIE COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 77

PLATE X. No. 1.

Ancient Work on Late Indian Reservation, Erie County, New

York.

UPON the opposite bank of the creek already named, and
probably on lot No. 3 of the Reservation, is the singular work
here presented. The land upon this side of the creek rises
abruptly to the height of 150 or 200 feet, forming a high bluff.
The edge of this bluff is cut by ravines into spurs or head
lands ; and upon one of these the work under notice is situa
ted. It is not large, and is singular only in having wide in
terruptions in the embankment — so wide, indeed, that were it
not from the perfect condition of the lines where they exist, it
might be conjectured that the structure was never completed.
Caches were noticed here. The ground is covered with a
dense forest, which obscures all parts of the work.

To the southwestward of this, on lot 29 of the same range
and on the south side of " Big Buffalo Creek," is still another
similar work, which is described by Mr. Junius Clark, in a
private communication, as about eight hundred feet in circum
ference, having three gateways and an open space ten rods
wide at the southwestern corner. A gateway on the north
opens toward a, spring of water, distant about a dozen rods.
Other works, probably differing in no essential respect from
these, are said to occur at various places upon the southern
border of the Reservation.

78 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

PLATE X. No. 2.

Ancient Work, Clarence Township, Erie County, New iork.

PASSING northward from the localities last mentioned to the
distance of five or six miles, keeping upon the limestone
plateau, we find another series of remains, composed of a suc
cession of works placed a mile or two apart, and extending
quite through the town of Clarence. The first of these (No. 2)
is two and a half miles south of the little village of " Clarence
Hollow." It has been under cultivation for a number of years,
and its outlines can now be traced only by carefully observing
the stronger vegetable growth upon the course of the ancient
trench. Where fence lines crossed the wall, short sections of
the embankment are yet visible. Fragments of pottery are
scattered over the area. If any of the usual pits ever existed,
they have been filled up by the operations of agriculture.

PLATE X. No. 3.

Ancient Work, Clarence Township, Erie County, New York.
A MILE northward of the work last described, and occupy
ing a position in no respect well adapted for defence, is the in-
closure here presented. It is now much defaced ; the part,
however, which has never been cultivated is very distinct, and
one or two other short sections may yet with some difficulty
be traced. Flint chippings, fragments of pottery, and a num
ber of deep caches occur within the area. A large Indian
cemetery is said to exist somewhere between this work and
the one just noticed. However true this may be, about half a
mile to the northwest on the land of a Mr. Fillmore, there is a
large deposit of bones, a " bone pit," some fourteen feet square
and four or five in depth, filled with crumbling human skele
tons. The spot was marked by a very slight elevation of the
earth a foot or two in height.

PLATE XI.

CLARENCE TP. Eft IE COUNTY N. X
^« S. W: of Clau-ence JTollotv

N°2

. r V-^^^ii^Sco -

% ° ?- s^w^SS^^rw'C °
P^&frJ^^ASSS^'/o- o

F/SHEAS FALLS, MEWSTED.TP.
c° Jf.y.

j/Jf.S. of the WZUvLge, of AJtroT^.)

X6.Syu.Ltr 1848.

ERIE COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 79

A couple of miles distant, still following the brow of the
terrace, and not far back of the village of Clarence, was for
merly another similar work now completely destroyed. Still
a mile beyond is another (Plate XL, No. 1), which, although
upon grounds which have been cleared, is yet perfect. It is
situated upon a sandy, slightly elevated peninsula, which pro
jects into a low tangled swamp. A narrow strip of dry ground
connects it with the higher lands, which border the swamp on
the south. It is small, containing less than an acre. The em
bankment does not preserve uniform dimensions, but has per
haps an average height of three feet. The ditch, too, is irregu
lar, both in width and depth, owing probably in some degree
to the rocky substratum, which in some places comes nearly or
quite to the surface of the ground. The stumps of immense
pine trees are standing within the work, as also upon its walls.
Here, too, are to be found caches, fragments of pottery, etc.
The position, for purposes of concealment and defence, is ad
mirably chosen, and recalls to mind the famous stronghold of
the Narragansetts in Rhode Island, destroyed in 1676 by the
New England colonists under Winthrop and Church.

A short distance from this work, upon the brow of a neigh
boring elevation, a number of human skeletons have been ex
posed by the plough. They probably mark the site of an In
dian cemetery. A mile to the eastward, upon a dry, sandy
spot, is another of the " bone pits " already several times re
ferred to, which is estimated, by those who excavated it origi
nally, to have contained four hundred skeletons heaped promis
cuously together. They were of individuals of every age and
sex. In the same field are found a great variety of Indian
relics, also brass cap and belt plates, and other remains of Eu
ropean origin. Not far distant, some lime burners discovered,
a year or two since, a skeleton surrounded by a quantity of
rude ornaments. It had been placed in the cleft of the rock,
the mouth of which was covered by a large flint stone

Passing onward in the same direction which we have been

80 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

pursuing, we come to the Batavia and Buffalo road, the great
thoroughfare over which, previous to the construction of the
railroad and canal, passed the entire western trade and travel.
Here, at a point a few miles from Clarence, known as the
" Vandewater Farm," are the traces of another work. A few
sections alone remain, barely sufficient to indicate that it was
of considerable size. The road passes through its centre.

PLATE XI. No. 2.

Ancient Work, Fisher's Falls, Newsted Township, Erie County,
New York.

THE sole remaining work in this county which was person
ally examined by the author is the one here presented. It is
situated five miles eastward of the locality last noticed, at a
place known as " Fisher's Falls," in the town of Newsted, upon
the banks of a creek, at present barbarously designated " Mur
der Creek." The creek here plunges down into a deep, nar
row gorge with precipitous banks, which continues to the edge
of the terrace a fourth of a mile distant. The relative position
of the work, which is of large size, is correctly designated on
the plan. It is now under cultivation, and is much reduced
from its original elevation, but can be traced without difficulty
throughout its extent. The older inhabitants affirm that the
walls were originally five feet in height, and the ditch of cor
responding proportions. Traces of the ancient caches are yet
to be observed ; and without the inclosure is a rock, the sur
face of which bears a number of artificial depressions hollowed
out by the Indians — the rude mortars in which they pounded
their corn.

This work occurs upon the old Indian trail, which extended
from the Genesee River to Batavia, and thence to Buffalo and
Niagara. A branch of this trail, after striking the limestone

CHATJTAUQUE COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 81

ledge at Tonawanda Creek, followed along its brow to Buffalo
Creek. It diverged inwardly at the point under notice, so as
to escape the impassable ravine already mentioned. Kirkland,
missionary to the Senecas in 1787, passed along this trail on
his way to Buffalo, and incidentally refers to a work which he
encountered after crossing Tonawanda Creek, and which is
probably the one here figured.

Besides the ancient remains here noticed, there are no doubt
many others of which no information has yet been obtained.
It is not probable, however, that they possess any novel fea
tures, or differ materially in any respect from those already
described. Some " bone pits," in addition to those already
mentioned, occur in Clarence township, and will be noticed in
another connection.

This county abounds in traces of recent Indian occupancy; in
fact, the rude cabins of the aborigines have scarcely crumbled
away, since they deserted their favorite haunts upon the banks
of the Buffalo Creek and its tributaries. A small band are at
bay upon the borders of the Tonawanda, sullenly defying the
grasping cupidity of those who, Shylock-like, sustained by frau
dulent contracts, are impatient to anticipate the certain doom
which impends over this scanty remnant, and would deny them
the poor boon of laying their bones beside those of their fathers.

CHAUTAUQUE COUNTY.

THIS county abounds in ancient monuments ; but no oppor
tunity was afforded of examining them during the progress of
the investigations here recorded. It is probable they are but a
continuation of the series extending through Erie county,
(which adjoins Chautauque on the northeast,) and it is not
likely they present any new features.

82 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

One of the most remarkable occupies an eminence in Sheri
dan township, four miles east of Fredonia, on the banks of
Beaver Creek. It corresponds, in all respects, with the hill-
works already described. Another of like character occurs in
the southern part of the same township.

MONTGOMERY COUNTY.
PLATE XII.

Ancient Work, Minden Township.

THE work here figured is, in many respects, the most remark
able in the State. It is the only one known which is situated
upon waters flowing into the Hudson River. Its nearest neigh
bors upon the west are the ancient works in Onondaga county,
a hundred miles distant. Between it and the Atlantic, we are
not aware of the existence of a single monument of like cha
racter.

It occurs upon the banks of the Otstungo Creek, a branch
of the Otsquago — itself a tributary of the Mohawk, about four
miles in a southwestern direction from Fort Plain, in the town
of Minden. It is known in the vicinity by the name of " In
dian Hill.'11 The position is admirably chosen, and is naturally
by far the strongest and most defensible of any which fell un
der the observation of the author in the entire course of his
explorations in this State. It is a high point of land project
ing into a bend of the creek, which upon one side has cut away
the slate rock, so that it presents a mural front upwards of one
hundred feet in height, and entirely inaccessible. Upon the
opposite side is a ravine, within which flows a small stream.
Here the slope, though not precipitous, is very abrupt ; and if

XII.

«ip

*OQ£*t*avc.I*iGJt.

B.G S

MONTGOMERY COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 83

a line of palisades were carried along its brow, it would be en
tirely inaccessible to a savage assailant. Across the narrow
isthmus which connects this headland with the adjacent high
grounds, is an embankment and ditch two hundred and forty
feet in length, extending from the precipice upon the south to
the brow of the ravine on the north, along which, curving in
ward, it is carried for some distance, terminating at a gigantic
pine six feet in diameter. It has been supposed by some that
this tree has grown upon the embankment since it was erected ;
but it seems most likely that it was the starting point of the
ancient builders. The wall is not of uniform height, but at
the most elevated point rises perhaps six feet above the bottom
of the ditch. No gateway is apparent, but one may have ex
isted where the " wood road " now crosses the entrenched line.
The plan will afford an accurate idea of the position and its
natural strength. The inclosed area is about seven hundred
feet long by four hundred and fifty broad at its widest part,
and contains very nearly six acres. It is densely covered with
immense pines throwing over it a deep gloom, and, with the
murmur of the stream at the foot of the precipice, impressing
the solitary visitor with feelings of awe, which the professed
antiquary might deem it a weakness to acknowledge.

Fragments of pottery and a variety of rude implements, as
also copper kettles and other articles of European origin, have
been found upon excavation within the inclosure and in its
immediate vicinity. At c and d, skeletons -have been disclosed
by the plough. They were well preserved, and had been bu
ried, according to the Indian custom, in a sitting posture.

The valley of the Mohawk in this vicinity, it is well known,
was the favorite seat of the tribe whose name it bears, and has
been made classical ground by the stirring incidents of our
early history. It was here the Indians maintained themselves
until the period of the Revolution, and it seems probable that
it was they who erected the work in question at an earlier or

84

ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

later date in their history.* It corresponds in position and
character with the works of the other parts of the State, and is
precisely such a structure as we might expect to find erected
by a very rude people. It could not be ascertained that there
are any traditions connected with it ; in fact, its existence is
scarcely known beyond its immediate vicinity. The first inti
mation concerning it was derived from 0. MORRIS, Esq., of the
New York Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, to whom the
author would convey his acknowledgments.

* In the London Documents preserved in the Office of the Secretary
of State, is a paper containing the observations of Wentworth Green-
halgh, who in 1677 made a journey from Albany among the Indians to
the westward. The following notices of the towns of the Maquaes, or
Mohawks, are interesting in this connection :

" The Maquaes have four towns, viz. : Cahainaga, Canagora, Canajorha,
Tionondogue, besides one small village about 110 miles from Albany.

" Cahainaga is double stockaded round ; has four ports, about four
feet wide apiece ; contains about twenty-four houses ; and is situate
upon the edge of a hill, about a bow-shot from the river side.

" Canagora is only singly stockaded, has four ports like the other,
contains about sixteen houses, and is situated upon a flat about a stone's
throw from the water's edge.

" Canajorha is also singly stockaded, with like number of houses, and
a similar situation only about two miles distant from the water.

" Tionondogue is doubly stockaded round, has four ports, four feet
wide apiece, contains about thirty houses, and is situated on a hill about
a bow-shot from the river." — Documentary History of New York, Vol. I.,
p. 11.

The Indian town of Canajoharie, or, as it was sometimes called, " Mid
dle Mohawk Castle," says Mr. L. H. Morgan, in his valuable " Letters
on the Iroquois," was situated at the junction of the creek referred to
in the text, the Ot-squa-go, and the Mohawk. " It occupied a little
eminence near the present site of Fort Plain, which the Indians called
Car-rag-jo-res, The Hill of Health. The name of the village, in the Onei-
da dialect, Can-a-jo-har-d-ld-ga, signified a kettle inverted on a pole"

XJH.

jr.*/.

PALOSAIH

OF THE SENECA S, HEAR GfMEVA ,
M.Y.

SCAL E .

S.S.f

PMHI&BII

• >\\ V \

CHAPTER III.

PALISADED INCLOSURES.

BESIDES the earth-works which have already been described,
and which furnish the principal objects of antiquarian interest
in the State, occasional traces are found of defensive structures
of a probably later date. These traces consist chiefly of a suc
cession of small holes in the earth, caused by the decay of wooden
palisades erected without the addition of an embankment and
trench. These holes, which are never visible in cultivated
grounds, enable us to follow the outlines and make out the
forms of the structures which once existed where they are
found. Some of these, as that of Ganundasaga near Geneva,
are known to have been occupied within the historical period.
And although it seems probable that the embankments of all
the inclosures already described were originally crowned with
palisades, still I have thought the difference between these and
simple palisaded works sufficiently marked to constitute the
basis of a classification. We may also premise what in the se
quel will probably admit of no doubt in any mind, that these
two classes of works are of different eras, though possessing a
common origin.

PLATE XIII. No. 1.

" Ganundasaga Castk? near Geneva. Ontario County, New

York.

THE traces of this palisaded work are very distinct, and its
outline may be followed with the greatest ease. Its preserva
tion is entirely due to the circumstance that at the time of the
cession of their lands at this point, the Senecas made it a spe-

86 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

cial condition that this spot should never be brought under
cultivation. " Here." said they, " sleep our fathers, and they
cannot rest well if they hear the plough of the white man above
them." The stipulations made by the purchasers have been
religiously observed.

The site of this ancient palisade slopes gently toward a little
stream, called Ganundasaga Creek, which supplied the occu
pants of the fort with water. The ground is covered with a
close greensward, and some of the apple trees planted by the
Indians are still flourishing. In form the work was nearly
rectangular, having small bastions at the northwestern and
southeastern angles. At a and b are small heaps of stone,
bearing traces of exposure to fire, which are probably the re
mains of forges or fireplaces. The holes formed by the decay
of the pickets are now about a foot deep. A fragment of one
of the pickets was removed by Mr. L. H. Morgan, of Rochester,
in 1847, and is now in the State Cabinet at Albany. It is of
oak.

A few paces to the northward of the old fort is a low mound
with a broad base, and undoubtedly of artificial origin. It is
now about six feet high, and is covered with depressions mark
ing the graves of the dead. There is a tradition current among
the Indians concerning this mound, to the effect that here in
the olden time was slain a powerful giant, above whom the
earth was afterward heaped. They believe that the bones of
this giant may be found at the base. It would be interesting
for a variety of reasons to have this mound excavated. By
whatever people erected, it is certain that it was extensively
used by the Senecas for purposes of burial.

In the cultivated fields surrounding the interesting works
here described, numerous relics have been discovered — chiefly,
however, of European origin.

This fort was destroyed by Sullivan in 1779. He burned
the palisade, destroyed the crops in the adjoining fields, and
cut down most of the fruit trees which the Indians had planted.

PALISADED INCLOSURES. 87

The name Ga-nun-da-sa-ga, given to this locality, Mr. Mor
gan informs us, in his " Letters on the Iroquois," signified
a new village, or the place of a new settlement, and was also the
aboriginal name of the lake, and the creek upon which the In
dian village was situated. Geneva was christened Ga-nun-da-
sa-ga "by the Senecas, and was known among them by that name
exclusively. Mr. Morgan also gives us the following interesting
tradition connected with the mound above described.

" A Seneca of giant proportions having wandered west to
the Mississippi, . and from thence east again to the sea-coast,
about the period of the colonization of the country, received a
gun from a vessel, together with some ammunition, and an
explanation of its use. Having returned to the Senecas at
Ga-nun-da-sa-ga, he exhibited to them the wonderful implement
of destruction, the first they had ever seen, and taught them
how to use it. Soon after, from some mysterious cause, he was
found dead ; and this mound was raised over him on the place
where he lay. It is averred by the Indians that if the mound
should be opened, a skeleton of supernatural size would be
found beneath it."

PLATE XIII. No. 2.

Palisaded Work of the Senecas. Seneca Township, Ontario
County, New York.

THIS work is situated about four miles to the northwest of
that last described, upon a high ridge of land extending north
and south, and parallel to and not far distant from another on
which is situated an ancient earth-work figured on Plate VII.,
No. I. A cross road from the " Castle Street Road " to the
town of Vienna runs along the crown of the ridge, and longitu
dinally through the work under notice. Upon the right of this
road the ground has been cultivated, and here the outlines of

88 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

the work are obliterated. Traces of several caches which existed
within the lines may however yet be seen. Upon the left, the
forest still remains undisturbed ; and here the outlines of the
inclosure are quite distinct, yet not sufficiently marked to arrest
the attention of the passer. The indications are precisely the
same as in the work at Ganundasaga. Fragments of pottery,
pipes, and other relics exactly corresponding with those which
are so frequent in the earth-works described in a previous
chapter, are also found in abundance upon this site. The work
does not appear to have had bastions, and is probably of more
ancient date than the one just noticed.

PLATE XIII. No. 3.

Ancient Work of the Cayugas, Ledyard Township, Cayuga
County, New York.

THIS work is found about twelve miles southwest of Auburn,
in the town of Ledyard, Cayuga county. It forms a good il
lustration of the character of the aboriginal defences. It is
situated upon a high point of ground, formed by the junction
of two immense ravines, which here sink some hundreds of feet
below the table-lands. A narrow spur, hardly wide enough to
permit two to walk abreast, extends down to the bottom of the
ravines, starting from the extreme point of the headland. It
is still called the " Indian Path," and affords a practicable de
scent to the water. At every other point the banks are almost,
if not entirely inaccessible. At some distance inward, extending
from the bank of one ravine to the other, was originally a line
of palisades. The holes left by their decay are still distinct,
each about eight inches in diameter. The position is eminently
a strong one, and, under the system of attack practiced by the
Indians, must have been impregnable. Within the inclosure
are to be found caches and other features common to the class

XJII.

PALISADED INCLOSURES. 89

of works previously described, and with which this work entirely
coincides, except that the embankment is wanting.

So far as could be ascertained, there is no tradition current
respecting this work. Still, as it is known that the principal
towns of the Cayugas existed in this vicinity until a very late
date, there can be no doubt that this was one of their places of
last resort. Very many traces of their former occupancy occur
here and along the eastern shores of Cayuga Lake.

PLATE XIV. No. 1.

Ancient Work of the Senecas, near Victor, Ontario County. New

York.

THE site occupied by the work here figured and the country
adjacent, derives considerable interest from its historical asso
ciations. Recent investigations have satisfactorily determined
that the Marquis De Nonville penetrated here in his celebrated
expedition against the Senecas, in 1687 ; and there is good
reason to believe that the traces at present existing are those
of the palisaded fort which was destroyed at that time. They
occupy the summit of a high hill, so steep upon most sides as
to be ascended only with the greatest difficulty. The line of
the palisades can now be traced only at intervals ; but from
the nature of the ground and the recollection of persons familiar
with the site before it was disturbed by the plough, it was found
easy to restore with accuracy the parts which have been oblit
erated. The sole entrance which can now be made out is at
the point marked by the letter a, where the palisades were
carried for some distance inward, leaving an open rectangular
space, which may have been occupied by a block -house or some
thing equivalent. Nearly in front, and at the bottom of a deep
and narrow ravine, a copious spring starts out from the hill ;

90 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

probably the one alluded to by De Nonville in his letter of the
25th of August, 1687.

"On the next day," says this commander, "the 14th of
July, we marched to one of the large villages of the Senecas,
where we encamped. We found it burned and a fort nearly
quite abandoned ; it was very advantageously situated on a hill.
* * * We remained at the four Seneca villages for ten days.
All the time was spent in destroying the corn, which was in
such great abundance that the loss, including the old corn which
was in cache which we burnt, was computed at 400,000 minots
(1,200.000 bushels) of Indian corn."

The large village alluded to here is no doubt the one which
was situated on the eminence now known as "Boughton's Hill,"
where abundant traces of Indian occupancy at this period are
found. These consist of copper kettles, French hatchets, bro
ken gun-barrels, arrow-heads, pipes, pottery, burnt corn, etc.
The iron recovered here at the time of the first settlement of
the country, was sufficiently abundant to repay the cost of
clearing the grounds. Indeed it was the source whence the
early blacksmiths, for a long distance round, derived the iron
for ordinary consumption ; and even now the smithies in the
vicinity consume large quantities of the metal which the opera
tions of agriculture continue to bring to light.

The remains upon Boughton's Hill are mentioned by Mr.
Clinton as corresponding in all respects with those which he
observed in Onondaga county, and to which he was disposed to
ascribe a high antiquity. They may all be referred to the same
period, and no doubt mark the sites of Onondaga and Seneca
villages in the 17th century.*

* Having alluded to the expedition of De Nonville, it will not prove
uninteresting to insert the following account of his attack on the Seneca
towns, which we find in the " Rochester Democrat," translated from a
MS. History of Canada, by M. L'Abbe de Belmont, discovered in the
Royal Library of Paris, and printed, for private circulation, under the
direction of the Historical Society of Quebec. For further information

PLATE XIV

PALISADED INCLOStlRES. 91

PLATE XIV. No. 2.

Ancient Work of the Senecas, Livonia Township, Livingston
County, New York.

THE traces of another palisaded work, no doubt erected by
the Senecas, but probably at a later period than that near Vic
tor, may still be seen on the farm of Gen. Adams, in Livonia
township, Livingston county, two miles northeast of the village
of Livonia.

respecting this famous expedition, the reader is referred to the memoirs
upon that subject by Mr. 0. H. Marshall, published by the Historical
Society of New York.

After a long accoimt of the organization of the expedition, the Abbe
de Belmont proceeds :

"Never had Canada seen, and never perhaps will it see, a similar
spectacle : three barques anchored opposite a camp, composed of one
fourth regular troops, with the General's suite ; one fourth habitans in
four battalions, with the gentry of the country ; one fourth Christian
Indians ; and, finally, a crowd of all the barbarous nations, naked, tattooed
and painted over the body with all sorts of figures, wearing horns on
their heads, queues down their backs, armed with arrows. We could hear
during the night a multitude of languages, and songs and dances in
every tongue. The Tsonnontouans (Senecas) came to reconnoitre us,
and then went to burn their village and take to flight.

" We entered and pushed our batteaux into the water of the little lake
of Atcniatarontague (Irondequoit) ; built a fort, and took our depar
ture from it on the 12th of July, toward evening. M. de Callieres, Lt.
General, led the advanced guard, composed of three hundred Christian
Indians on the right, commanded by M. de Sainte Hilene. The pagan
savages on the left with three companies — 100 Ottawas, 800 Poux, 100
Chaouanons or Illinois, and 50 Hurons commanded by the interpreters,
Nicholas Perrot, Micheloque and Penan, with the runners and volun
teers in the centre, making from eight to nine hundred men. At some
distance after the advanced guard, came the main body of four battal
ions of regulars and four of militia. M. the Marquis was at the head
of the regular troops, and M. Dugue of the militia.

" The march was a little hurried; the wearied troops were dying of
thirst ; the day was hot. The two bodies found themselves too distant

92 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

It occupied a beautiful, broad swell of land, not commanded
by any adjacent heights. Upon the west side of the lines is a
fine, copious spring ; for which the Indians had constructed a
large basin of loose stones. The form and dimensions of the
work are given in the accompanying plan. Upon a little ele
vation to the left, as also in the forest to the northward, are

from each other. The scouts, too, were deceived ; for having come to the
deserts (barrens or plains) of Gaensara, (Victor,) they found five or six
women who were going round in the fields. This was a lure which the
Iroquois held out to the French to make them believe that they were
all in their village. In fact, this was the cause of the hasty march of
the Marquis, who wished to surround the town before their leaving it.
But the principal cause of all that happened was that Garistatsi and
Gannagenroguen Agniers (Mohawks) stole from the barque in the night,
and went to the Tsonnontouans and told them our number, our plan,
and above all, that the savages carried on their heads red head-dresses.

" Thereupon all the warriors took off their breech-clothes in order to
pass for the Ottawas, who do not wear them, and made them into head
dresses, which was of service in enabling them to pass for our allies.
Finally the women and old men, loaded with what they had of value,
fled to Oniongouen (Cayuga). All the warriors, to the number of eight
hundred, having burned their village, resolved to prepare an ambuscade.

" The territory of Gaensara is very hilly. The village is upon a high
hill, which is mounted by three little hills or terraces ; at the foot is a
valley, and opposite some other hills, between which passes a large
brook overhung with woods, descending and rapid, Avhich in the valley
makes a little marsh, covered with alders. This is the place which
they selected for their ambuscade. They divided themselves, posted
three hundred men along the falling brook between two hills, in a great
thicket of beech trees, and 500 at the bottom of these hills in the marsh
and among the alders, with the idea that the first ambuscade of three
hundred men should let the army pass and then attack them in the rear,
which would force it to fall into the second ambuscade which was con
cealed at the bottom of the hills in the marsh. They deceived them
selves, nevertheless ; for as the advanced guard which M. de Callieres
cammanded was very distant from the body under the command of the
Marquis, they believed that it was the entire army. Accordingly as
the advanced guard passed near the thicket of beeches, after making a
horrible whoop (sakaqua), they fired a volley.

"It is inevitably very disadvantageous to be taken by surprise and

PALISADED INCLOSURES. 93

extensive cemeteries. Many articles of comparatively late date
are found in the graves. The area of the work was about ten
acres.

Three miles to the eastward formerly existed the traces of
a work represented to have been octangular in shape, and of
considerable size. It has been wholly obliterated.

fall into an ambush. The Ottawas and the heathen Indians all fled ;
they were at the left of the French advanced guard composed of the three
companies of Du Luth, La Durantajre and Tonti, which they left exposed.
The Christian Indians of the Mountain and the Sault, and the Abe-
naquis held fast and gave two volleys.

" M. the Marquis advanced with the main body, composed of the
Royal troops, to occupy the height of the hill where there was a little
fort of pickets ; but the terror and disorder of the surprise were such
that there was only M. de Valrenne who distinguished himself there,
and M. Dugue, who, bringing up the rear-guard, rallied the battalion of
Berthier which was in flight, and being at the head of that of Montreal,
fired two hundred shots. M. the Marquis en chemise, sword in hand,
drew up the main body in battle order and beat the drums at a time
that scarcely any one was to be seen. This frightened the three hun
dred Tsonnontouans of the ambuscade, who fled from above toward
the 500 who were ambushed below. The fear that all the world was
upon them, made them fly with so much precipitation that they left
their blankets in a heap and nothing more was seen of them.

" A council was held ; it was resolved, as it was late, to sleep on
the field of battle for fear of another surprise. On going into the place
of the ambuscade, 14 Iroquois were found dead or dying. Their heads
were cut off and brought into camp. One of those still alive said that
there were 800 of them — 300 above and 500 below — and that the Onion-
gouens (Cayugas) were to come the next day, which was the reason
that they stayed where they were. There were found at several places,
during the succeeding days, provisions and some other dead savages — or
if not dead our men killed them.

"For our loss. Father Angelran, a celebrated Missionary to the
Ottawas, was shot through the thighs ; among the French, Nantara,
Filliatro and others were killed.

" Among our savages, were slain Tegaretouan Le Soleil, of the
mountain, a brave Christian in every respect ; Oyernatariben, La Cen-
dre Chaud (Hot Ashes), of the Sault. Ooniagon, Le Ciel des Tionnonta-
tes, Huron. Three wounded savages and many Frenchmen, who suffered

94 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

In Queen's county there were, some years ago, traces of abo
riginal works, which seem to have differed very slightly from a
portion of those just noticed. They are thus described by
Judge Samuel Jones, in a notice of the local history of Oyster
Bay, written in 1812:

" When this part of Long Island was first settled by the
Europeans, they found two fortifications in the neighborhood
of Oyster Bay, upon a neck of land ever since called, from that
circumstance, ' Fort Neck.' One of them, the remains of
which are very conspicuous, is on the southernmost point of
land on the neck adjoining the Salt Meadow. It is nearly, if
not exactly, a square ; each side of which is about one hundred
feet in length. The breastwork or parapet is of earth ; and
there is a ditch on the outside, which appears to have been
about six feet wide. The other was on the southernmost point

a great deal, were brought in, borne upon litters by our men, who
relieved each other several times each day.

" On the morrow we marched in battle order, watching for an attack.
We descended the hill by a little sloping valley or gorge, through which
ran a brook bordered with thick bushes, and which discharges itself at
the foot of the hill in a marsh full of deep mud, but planted with alders
so thick that one could scarcely see. There it was that they had stationed
their two ambuscades, and where perhaps we would have been defeated,
if they had not mistaken our advanced guard for the whole army, and
been so hasty in firing. The Marquis acted very prudently in not pur
suing them, for it \vas a trick of the Iroquois to draw us into a greater
ambuscade. The marsh, which is about twenty acres (arpens) in extent,
being passed, we found about two or three hundred wretched blankets,
several miserable guns, and began to perceive the famous Babylon of
the Tsonnontouans, a city or village of bark, situate at the top of a
mountain of earth, to which one rises by three terraces (hills). It
appeared to us, from a distance, to be crowned with round towers, but
these were only large chests (drums) of bark about four feet in length, set
the one in the other, some five feet in diameter, in which they keep their
Indian corn. The village had been burnt by themselves ; it was now
eight days since. We found nothing entire in the town except the town
cemetery and the graves. It was filled with snakes and animals, a great
mask with teeth and eyes of brass, and a bear-skin with which they

PALISADED INCLOSURES. 95

of the Salt Meadow, adjoining the bay, and consisted of pali
sades set in the ground. The tide has worn away the meadow
where the fort stood, and the place is now part of the bay and
covered with water ; but my father has often told me that
within his memory part of the palisades were still standing.
In the bay, between the Salt Meadow and the beach, are two
islands of marsh, called Squaw Islands ; and the uniform tra
dition among the Indians is, that the forts were erected by
their ancestors for defence against their enemies, and that upon
the approach of a foe, they sent their women and children to
these islands, which were in consequence called Squaw Isl
ands."*

Examples of this class of aboriginal remains might be greatly
multiplied. Those, however, which have already been pre
sented, will serve sufficiently to illustrate their character. In

juggle in their cabins. There were in the four corners great boxes of
grain which they had not burnt. Thejr had, outside this post, their
Indian corn in a picket fort at the top of a little mountain, steep (or cut
down, scarped) on all sides, where it was knee high, throughout the fort.

" The Tsonnontouans have four large villages, which they change
every ten years, in order to bring themselves near the woods and to
permit them to grow up again. They call them Gaensara, Tohaiton,
which are the two larger, Onnontague, Onnenaba, which are smaller.
In the last dwells Ganonketahoui, the principal chief. We cut the
standing grain, already ripe enough to eat, and burned the old. It was
estimated that we burnt one hundred thousand minots of old grain, and
a hundred and fifty thousand minots of that standing in the field, besides
the beans, and the hogs that we killed. Sixty persons died of wounds
received in the battle, and a multitude perished of want; many fled
beyond the great mountains of Onnontague, which separate them from
Virginia, and went to dwell in the country of the Adastoez ; the greater
part of the captives dispersed, and since that time the Tsonnontouanne
nation, which counted ten thousand souls in all, has been reduced to
half that number. From here, against the expectations of the Indians,
who believed that we were going to Cayuga, Onondaga and the other
Iroquois cantons, we went to establish a fort at Niagara, where we
arrived after three days' journey."

* Coll. N. Y. Hist. Soc., Vol. III., p. 338.

96 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

all are found relics corresponding in every particular with those
discovered within the walls of the earth-works described in the
preceding chapter, but usually with the addition of articles of
later date and known European origin. This circumstance is
not without its importance in estimating the probable depend
ence between the two classes of remains.

CHAPTER IV.

MOUNDS, BONE-HEAPS, ETC.

VARIOUS references to mounds or tumuli, resembling those
found in the Valley of the Mississippi, have been made in the
preceding pages. These mounds are far from numerous, and
hardly deserve a separate notice. It is, nevertheless, an inter
esting fact to know that isolated examples occur, in situations
where it is clear no dependence exists between them and the
grand system of earth-works of the Western States. It serves
to sustain the conclusion that the savage Indian tribes occa
sionally constructed mounds ; which are, however, rather to be
considered as accidents than the results of a general practice.
The purposes of the mounds of New York, so far as can be de
termined, seem uniformly to have been those of sepulture.
They generally occur upon commanding or remarkable posi
tions. Most of them have been excavated, under the impulse
of an idle curiosity, or have had their contents scattered by
" money-diggers," a ghostly race, of which, singularly enough,
even at this day, representatives may be found in almost every
village. I was fortunate enough to discover one upon Tona-
wanda Island, in Niagara River, which had escaped their mid
night attentions. It was originally about fifteen feet in height.
At the base appeared to have been a circle of stones, perhaps
ten feet in diameter, within which were several small heaps of
bones, each comprising three or four skeletons. The bones are
of individuals of all ages, and had evidently been deposited
after the removal of the flesh. Traces of fire were to be dis
covered upon the stones. Some chippings of flint and broken
arrow-points, as also some fragments of deer's horns, which ap-
5

98 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

peared to have been worked into form, were found among the
bones. The skulls had been crushed by the superincumbent
earth.

The mounds which formerly existed in Erie, Genesee, Mon
roe, Livingston, St. Lawrence, Oswego, Chenango, and Dela
ware counties, all appear to have contained human bones, in
greater or less quantities, deposited promiscuously, and em
bracing the skeletons of individuals of all ages and both sexes.
They, probably, all owe their origin to a practice common to
many of the North American tribes, of collecting together, at
fixed intervals, the bones of their dead, and finally depositing
them with many and solemn ceremonies. They were some
times heaped together so as to constitute mounds ; at others,
placed in pits or trenches dug in the earth ; and it is probable
they were in some instances buried in separate graves, placed in
long ranges, or deposited in caverns, either promiscuously or
with regularity.

The period when this second burial took place occurred at
different intervals among the different tribes, but was univer
sally denominated the " Festival of the Dead." Bartram.
speaking of the burial customs of the Floridian Indians, says :
" After the bone-house is full, a general solemn funeral takes
place. The nearest kindred and friends of the deceased, on a
day appointed, repair to the bone-house, take up the respective
coffins, and, following one another in the order of seniority, the
nearest relations and connections attending their respective
corpses, and the multitude succeeding them, singing and la
menting alternately, slowly proceed to the place of general
interment, when they place the coffins in order, forming a pyra
mid. Lastly, they cover all over with earth, which raises a
conical hill or mount. They then return to town in order of
solemn procession, concluding the day with a festival, which is
called the ' Feast of the Dead.' "* The author here quoted

* Travels, p. 514.

MOUNDS, BONE-HEAPS, ETC. 99

adds, in a note, that it was the opinion of some ingenious men
with whom he had conversed, " that all those artificial pyra
midal hills, usually called ' Indian Mounts,' were raised on
such occasions, and are generally sepulchres ;" from which
opinion he takes occasion to dissent. There is no doubt a
wide difference between the mounds thus formed and the great
bulk of those connected with the vast ancient inclosures of the
Western States.

The large cemeteries which have been discovered in Ten
nessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Ohio, seem to have resulted
from a similar practice. In these the skeletons were generally
packed in rude coffins composed of flat stones, placed in ranges
of great extent. The circumstance that many of these coffins
were not more than two or three feet in length, gave rise to
the notion of the former existence here of a pigmy race. The
discovery of iron and some articles of European origin in one
of these cemeteries, in the vicinity of Augusta, Kentucky, shows
that this mode of burial existed at a late period among the
Indians in that direction.

The "bone pits" which occur in some parts of Western
New York, Canada, Michigan, etc., have unquestionably a cor
responding origin. Several of these have been described in a
previous chapter. They are of various sizes, but usually con
tain a large number of skeletons. In a few instances the bones
appear to have been arranged with some degree of regularity.

One of these pits discovered some years ago, in the town of
Cambria, Niagara county, was estimated to contain the bones
of several thousand individuals.* Another which I visited in

* This locality was visited and examined by Mr. 0. Turner, of Buffalo,
in 1823. The account of this gentleman is published in his history of
the " Holland Purchase," p. 27, and is as follows :

" The location commands a view of Lake Ontario and the surrounding
country. An area of six acres of level land seems to have been occu
pied ; fronting which, upon the circular verge of the mountain, were the
distinct remains of a wall. Nearly in the centre of the area was a de-

100

ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

the town of Clarence. Erie county, contained not less than four
hundred skeletons. A deposit of bones comprising a large
number of skeletons was found, not long since, in making some
excavations in the town of Black Rock, situated on Niagara
River, in Erie county. They were arranged in a circle, with
their heads radiating from a large copper kettle, which had
been placed in the centre, and filled with bones. Various im
plements both of modern and remote date had been placed
beside the skeletons.

In Canada similar deposits are frequent. Accounts of their
discovery and character have appeared in various English pub
lications, among which may be named the " British Colonial
Newspaper," of September 24th, 1847, and the "Edinburgh
New Philosophical Journal," for July, 1848. From a commu
nication in the latter, by Edward "W. Bawtree, M.D., the sub
joined interesting facts are derived.

A quantity of human bones was found in one spot, in 1846,
near Barrie, and also a pit containing human bones near St.
Vincent's. Great numbers were found in the latter, with several
copper and brass kettles, and various trinkets and ornaments
in common use among the Indians. This discovery led to the
examination of a similar pit, about seven miles from Penetan-
queshene, in the township of Giny. " This pit was accident
ally noticed by a Canadian while making sugar in the neigh
borhood. He was struck by its appearance and the peculiar

pository of the dead. It was a pit excavated to the depth of four or
five feet, filled with human bones, over which were piles of sandstone.
Hundreds seem to have been thrown in promiscuously, of both sexes
and all ages. Numerous barbs or arrow-points were found among the
bones and in the vicinity. It has been conjectured that this had been
the scene of some sanguinary battle, and that these are the bones of the
slain. A tree, standing directly over the spot, had been cut down, upon
the stump of which could be counted 230 concentric circles of growth.
Rude fragments of pottery, pieces of copper, and iron instruments of
rude workmanship, had been ploughed up within the area ; also charred
wood, corn, and cobs."

MOUNDS, BONE-HEAPS, ETC. 101

sound produced at the bottom by stamping there ; and, in turn
ing up earth to a little depth, was surprised to find a quan
tity of human bones. It was more accurately examined in
September. 1847, and found to contain, besides a great number
of human skeletons, of both sexes and all ages, twenty-six cop
per and brass kettles and boilers ; three large conch-shejls ;
pieces of beaver-skin in tolerable preservation ; a fragment of
a pipe ; a large iron ax, evidently of French manufacture ;
some human hair (that of a woman) ; a copper bracelet ; and a
quantity of flat auricular beads, perforated through the centre.

" The form of the pit is circular, with an elevated margin ;
it is about fifteen feet in diameter, and before it was opened
was probably nine feet deep from the level of its margin to its
centre and bottom ; it was, in one word, funnel-shaped. It is
situated on the top of a gentle rise, with a shallow ravine on
the east side, through which, at certain seasons, runs a small
stream. The soil is light, free from stones, and dry. A small
iron-wood tree, about two inches in diameter, is growing in the
centre of the pit.

" The kettles in the pit were found ranged at the bottom,
resting on pieces of bark, and filled with bones. They had
evidently been covered with beaver-skins. The shells and the
ax were found in the intervals be
tween the kettles. The beads were
in the kettles among the bones, gen
erally in bunches or strings.

" The kettles, of which Fig. 9 is
an example, resemble those in use at
the present day, and appear to be
formed of sheet copper, the rim be- FIG. 9.

ing beaten out so as to cover an iron band which passes around
the mouth of the vessel. The iron handle, by which they were
suspended, hooks into eyes attached to the band above men
tioned. The smallest holds about six gallons ; the largest, not
far from sixteen gallons. The copper is generally very well

102

ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

preserved ; the iron, however, is much corroded. Two of the
kettles were of brass.

FIG. 10.

" The largest of the conch-shells, Fig. 10, weighs three pounds
and a quarter, and measures fourteen inches in its longest dia
meter. Its outer surface has lost its polish, and is quite honey
combed by age and decomposition ; the inside still retains its
smooth, lamellated surface. It has lost its color, and appears
like chalk. A piece had been cut from its base, probably
for making the beads that were found in it.* From the base
of the columella of the smallest shell a piece
had been cut, evidently for the purpose of
manufacturing beads. The extreme point
of the base of each shell had a perforation
through it.

"The ax, Fig. 11, is of nearly the same
model with the tomahawk now in use among
the Chippeway Indians, though very much
larger, measuring eleven inches in length
and six inches and a half along its cutting
edge. Numbers of these have been found
in the neighborhood on newly cleared land.

" The pipe is imperfect. It is made of

* Dr. Bern W. Budd, of New York, states that this shell, the pyrula
perversa, abounds in the Gulf of Mexico and particularly in Mobile Bay.
It has also been found by the officers of the U. S. Coast Survey as far
north as Cape Fear, in North Carolina.

MOUNDS, BONE-HEAPS. ETC. 103

the earthenware of which so many specimens are found in the
neighborhood, in the form of vessels and pipes. The spots
where the manufacture of these articles was carried on are still
to be seen in some places.

" The beads are formed of a white, chalky substance, varying
in degree of density and hardness ; they are accurately circular,
with a circular perforation in the centre ; of different sizes,
from a quarter to half an inch, or rather more, in diameter ;
but nearly all of the same thickness, not quite the eighth of an
inch. They may be compared to a peppermint lozenge with a
hole through the centre. They were found in bunches or
strings, and a good many were still closely strung on a fibrous,
woody substance. The bracelet is a simple band of copper, an
inch and a half broad, closely fitting the wrist. The hair is
long, evidently that of a woman, and quite fresh in appearance.

" Another pit, about two miles from that just noticed, was
also examined in September. It is considerably smaller, being
not more than nine feet in diameter, by about the same original
depth. It is situated on rising ground, in a light, sandy soil,
and there is nothing remarkable in its position. A beech tree,
six inches thick, grew from its centre. It contained about as
many skeletons as the other pit, but had no kettles in it. The
bones were of individuals of both sexes, and of all ages. Among
them were a few foetal bones. Many of the skulls bore marks
of violence, leading to the belief that they were broken before
burial. One was pierced by a round hole, like that produced
by a musket -ball. A single piece of a brass vessel was found in
the pit ; it had been packed in furs. A large number of shell
beads, of various sizes, were also ^ found here. Besides these,
there were some cylindrical pieces of earthenware and porcelain
or glass tubes, from an inch to a quarter of an inch in diameter,
and from a quarter to two inches long.* The former had the

* These were clearly the European imitations of the much-prized
Indian wampum.

104

ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

appearance of red and white tobacco-pipes, worn away by fric
tion, the latter of red and white glass. A hexagonal body, with
flat ends, about an inch and a half in diameter, and an inch
thick, was also found. It was composed of some kind of porce
lain, of hard texture, nearly vitreous, and much variegated in
color, with alternate layers of red, blue, and white. It was
perforated through the centre.

" The third of these pits was examined in November, 1847.
It is situated in the township of Oro, on elevated ground. The
soil is a light, sandy loam. It measures about fifteen feet in
diameter, has the distinctly defined elevated ring, but the centre
less depressed than in those before examined, which may have
resulted from the greater bulk of its contents. On its margin
grew formerly a large pine, the roots of which had penetrated
through the pit in every direction. The bones, which were of
all sizes, were scarcely covered with earth. The skeletons
amounted to several hundreds in number, and were well pre
served. On some, pieces of tendon still remained, and the
joints of the small bones in some cases were unseparated. Some
of the skulls bore marks of violence.

" As in the first noticed pit, so in this, were found twenty-six
kettles — four of brass and the rest of copper — one conch-shell,
one iron ax, and a number of the flat perforated shell beads.
The kettles were arranged in the form of a cross through the
centre of the pit, and in a row around the circumference. The
points of this cross seem to have corresponded with the cardinal
points of the compass. All except two of the kettles were
placed with their mouths downward. The shell was found un
der one of the kettles, which had been packed with beaver-skins
and bark. The kettles were very well preserved, but had all
been rendered useless by blows from a tomahawk. The holes
were broken in the bases of the vessels. Should any doubt
exist as to the purposes of these pits, the fact that the kettles
were thus rendered unserviceable would tend to increase that

MOUNDS, BONE-HEAPS, ETC. 105

doubt, as it appears to have been a proceeding so very contrary
to the habits and ideas of the Indians in general.*

"A pipe was found in this pit, described as having been
composed of blue limestone or hard clay. On one side it had
a human face, the eyes of which were formed of white pearly
beads. An iron ax and sundry beads were also found here.

" A fourth pit was opened in December, 1 847. It is situated
on a gentle slope, in the second concession west of the Pene-
tanqueshene road, in the township of Giny. In size it corre
sponds very nearly with the two first described, and probably
contained about the same number of skeletons. In it were
found sixteen conch-shells ; a stone and clay pipe ; a number
of copper bracelets and ear ornaments ; eleven beads of red
pipe-stone ; copper arrow-heads ; a cup of iron resembling an
old iron ladle ; beads of several kinds, and various fragments
of furs. The shells were arranged around the bottom of the
pit, not in a regular row, but in threes and fours ; the other
articles were found mixed with the bones. The bones were of
all sizes, and the skulls unin
jured except by time. The
accompanying sketch (Fig. 12)
will sufficiently indicate the
character of the pipes. The
arrow-heads, as they are sup
posed to have been, were simple
folds of sheet copper, resembling
a roughly-formed ferule to a FlG- 12>

walking-stick. Besides the flat circular beads, which were
found in great numbers, were a few cylindrical porcelain bead's,
etc. The red stone beads were five eighths of an inch broad,

* Dr. Bawtree is mistaken in supposing this practice uncommon.
The Oregon Indians invariably render useless every article deposited
with their dead, so as to remove any temptation to a desecration of the
grave which might otherwise exist. A similar practice prevailed among
the Floridian Indians.

5*

106 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

and three eighths thick, with small holes at one end, uniting
with each other.

" There is reason to believe that the above constitute but a
very small proportion of the pits that may be found in this
neighborhood. The French Canadians, now that their attention
has been directed to the subject, say that they are of frequent
occurrence in the woods. But besides these larger and more
evident excavations, smaller ones of the same shape and appa
rent character are often met with. They are usually called
1 potato pits.' So far as they have been examined, they do not
contain deposits. Some appear to have been covered with bark
at the bottom. One was examined in which were found some
pieces of pottery and one or two human bones, mixed with stones
and black mould ; which seemed to strengthen the supposition
previously formed, that they were Indian graves from which
the bones had been removed for interment in the large pits.

" A fifth pit has also been examined. It occurs about eight
miles from Penetanqueshene, near the centre of the town of
Giny. Close by its side is another pit, which is not circular
but elongated, with a mound on each side. At the brow of
the hill, if it may be so called, and commencing about twenty
yards from the pits, there is the appearance of a long ditch
extending in a southwestern direction ; another ditch about
half the length of this meets it at right angles on the top of the
rising ground, and is continued a few yards beyond the point
of junction ; a third ditch intersects the short one, as shown in
the following plan.

'• The two first ditches form two sides of a parallelogram ;
but there is no sign of an inclosure at the other sides, where
the ground is low and nearly level. The long ditch is seventy-
five paces in length, the other half that length. The first ter
minates at a moderate-sized gum tree, the latter at the foot of
a large birch. These ditches appear to be a succession of small
pits or graves, and have an average depth of from one to two
feet. Excavation disclosed no bones. Upon the north side of

MOUNDS, BONE-HEAPS, ETC.

107

the shorter and upper ditch, several Indian graves were found,
not placed in any order, but scattered around at various dis-

FIG. 13.

tances apart. Three of these were examined and found to
contain human bones. In one was an entire skeleton. No
implements or ornaments accompanied the bones

" The bones in the large pits were covered with three or four
feet of earth, which is more than is usually found over them,
and the marginal ring was in consequence less apparent. It
contained very few relics besides the bones, which, from their

108 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

decayed condition, seemed to indicate that burials here were
made at a very remote period."

In Isle Ronde, situated near the extremity of Lake Huron,
is a burial-place of the aborigines corresponding generally with
those just described. It was visited in 1843 by Mr. School-
craft, who states that the human remains appeared to have been
gathered from their original place of sepulture and finally de
posited here. The bones were all arranged longitudinally,
from north to south, in a wide grave or trench. There is upon
the same island an Indian cemetery of comparatively modern
date, in which the interments were made in the ordinary way.
Another similar burial-place was visited by Mr. Schoolcraft, in
the town of Hamilton, seventeen miles west of the head of
Lake Ontario. The burials had been made on a high, dry
ridge, in long trenches and rude vaults ; the bones being piled
upon each other longitudinally, as at Isle Ronde. The trenches
extend over the entire ridge ; and one of these examined by
Mr. Schoolcraft was estimated to include not less than fifteen
hundred square feet. Various remains of art. pipes, shells,
beads, etc., were found with the bones, and among them sev
eral brass kettles, in one of which were five infant skulls.

The origin of the various cemeteries above noticed admits
of no doubt. The same practice which Bartram described as
existing among the Floridians, and which we have reason to
believe prevailed among the Indians of Tennessee, Kentucky,
etc., also existed in a slightly modified form among the more
northern tribes. They, too, had their solemn " Festival of the
Dead," which is minutely described by Charlevoix, Brabeuf,
Creuxius, and other early writers. Says Charlevoix : " This
grand ceremony, the most curious and celebrated of all con
nected with the Indian religion, took place every eight years
among some of the tribes, every ten years among the Hurons
and the Iroquois. It was called the ' Fete des Morts] Festival
of the Dead, or i Feslin des Ames.1

" It commenced by the appointment of a place where they

MOUNDS, BONE-HEAPS, ETC, 109

should meet. They then chose a president of the feast, whose
duty it was to arrange everything and send invitations to the
neighboring villages. The appointed day arrived, all the In
dians assembled and went in procession, two and two, to the
cemetery. Among some tribes of stationary habits, the ceme
tery was a regular burial-ground outside the village. Some
buried their dead at the foot of a tree, and others suspended
them on scaffolds to dry ; this last was a common proceeding
among them when absent from home on a hunting expedition,
so that on their return they might more conveniently carry
the body with them.

" Arrived at the cemetery, they proceeded to search for the
bodies ; they then waited for some time to consider in silence
a spectacle so capable of furnishing serious reflections. The
women first interrupted the silence by cries of lamentation,
which increased the feeling of grief with which each person
seemed overcome. They then used to take the bodies, arrange
the separate and dry bones, and place them in packets to carry
on their shoulders. If any of the bodies were not entirely de
composed, they separated the flesh, washed the bones, and
wrapped them in new beaver-skins. They then returned in
the same procession in which they came, and each deposited
his burden in his cabin. During the procession the women
continued their lamentations, and the men testified the same
marks of grief as on the death of the person whose bones they
bore. This was followed by a feast in each house, in honor of
the dead of the family. The succeeding days were considered
as public days, and were spent in dancing, games, and combats,
at which prizes were bestowed. From time to time they ut
tered certain cries, which were called ' les cris des aims?

u They made presents to strangers, and received presents
from them on behalf of the dead. These strangers sometimes
came a hundred and fifty leagues. They also took advantage
of these occasions to treat on public affairs or select a chief.
Everything passed with order, decency and moderation ; and

110 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

every one seemed overcome with sentiments suitable to the oc
casion. Even the songs and dances expressed grief in some way.
After some days thus spent, all went in procession to a grand
council-room fitted for the occasion. They then suspended
the bones and bodies in the same state as they had taken them
from the cemetery, and placed there the presents intended for
the dead. If among the skeletons there happened to be one
of a chief, his successor gave a grand feast in his name. In
some cases the bodies were paraded from village to village, and
everywhere received with great demonstrations of grief and
tenderness, and everywhere presents were made to them.
They then took them to the spot designated as their final rest
ing-place. All their ceremonies were accompanied with music,
both instrumental and vocal, to which each marched in cadence.

" The last and common place of burial was a large pit, which
was lined with the finest skins and anything which they con
sidered valuable. The presents destined for the dead were
placed on one side ; and when the procession arrived, each
family arranged itself on a sort of scaffold around the pit ; and
as soon as the bodies were deposited, the women began again
to cry and lament. Then all the assistants descended into the
pit, and each person took a handful of earth, which he carefully
preserved, supposing it would serve to give them success in
their undertakings. The bodies and bones were arranged in
order, and covered with furs and bark, over which were placed
stones, wood and earth. Each person then returned to his
home, but the women used to go back from day to day with
some sagamatie (pounded parched corn)."*

We have, in the quotation from Bartram on page 98, the evi
dence, (not the most conclusive, it is true,) that some of the
mounds of the South were general cemeteries, and not of a very
high antiquity.

* Charlevoix, Vol. II., p. 194, ubi supra ; Creuxii Historia Canaden-
sis, p. 97.

MOUNDS, BONE-HEAPS, ETC. Ill

In a letter dated Mt. Sylvan, Mississippi, August, 1847, Mr.
R. Morris presents the following facts respecting the mounds
of that region. « A mound which I opened last summer, twelve
miles southeast from this place, had in it not less than fifty full
skeletons, all pretty near the surface. They were packed with
out order, with layers of pounded clay between them. Those
nearest the top were black and quite fresh, but lower down
they were greatly decayed. No relics accompanied them, al
though in the graves where the later races buried their dead,
are found many ornaments, utensils and weapons.

" A few miles from Panola, there is a mound quite full of
human bones. Hundreds may be thrown out with a sharpened
cane. Another mound, about twelve miles north of the place
just named, was opened a year or two since. In the centre
was found a structure like a cistern, nearly round, four feet
across, and filled with soil. This being removed, an earthen
vessel of singular form and material was taken out."

Mounds designed as general cemeteries, if indeed there be any
in the Western States, are certainly few in number, and of
modern date. One, containing many skeletons, disposed in
layers, formerly existed in Belmont county, Ohio. Whether it
was secondarily appropriated by the Indians or built by them,
it is not presumed to say ; the remains found in it were indu
bitably of the recent tribes and of late deposit.

The tumulus examined by Mr. Jefferson on the low grounds
of the Ravenna River, and described in his " Notes on Virgi
nia," is attributed by him to the recent tribes of Indians, by
whom it was probably built. The stream on which it occurs is
one of the lower branches of the James River, which empties
into the Atlantic. We have no satisfactory evidence that the
race of the mounds passed over the Alleghanies, though they
seem to have turned the flank of that range a little upon the
north and on the south. The existence of a few tumuli to the
east of these mountains, unless in connection with other and
extensive works, such as seem to have marked every step of the

112 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

progress of that race, is .therefore of little importance, and not
at all conclusive upon this point ; especially as it will hardly be
denied that the existing races of Indians did and still do occa
sionally construct mounds of small size. This mound was esti
mated by Mr. Jefferson to contain the remains of a thousand
individuals, a portion of which, particularly toward the surface,
were placed without order, while the remainder seemed to have
been deposited with a certain degree of regularity. This is
certainly a very large estimate of the contents of a barrow but
forty feet base by seven feet in height. It will not be out of
place to remark here, that by the unpracticed observer, the
bones of a hundred skeletons placed together would probably
be mistaken for those of several hundred or a thousand.

We have, it is true, but very few accounts of the construction
of mounds by the existing tribes of Indians. Lewis and Clark
noticed, in their travels west of the Mississippi river, a spot
" where one of the great chiefs of the Mahas had been interred.
He was buried on a hill, and a mound twelve feet in diameter
and six feet in height erected over him."* Beck mentions a
large mound on the Osage river, which had been erected within
the last thirty or forty years, by the 0 sages, in honor of one
of their dead chiefs, f Mention is made in the documents

* Exp., vol. I., p. 43. " Blackbird (Wash-ing-gah-sahba), chief of the
Omahaws, or Mahas, died in 1800, and was interred in a sitting posture
on the back of his favorite horse, upon the summit of a high bluff of
the Missouri, ' that he might see the white people ascend the river to
trade with his nation.' A mound was raised over him, on which food
was regularly placed for many years after ; but this has been discontin
ued, and the flag-staff which crowned it has been removed." — James
Exp., vol. I., p. 204.

t Gaz. of Mo., p. 308; James' Exp., vol. II., p. 34. This is probably
the same mound referred to by Mr. Sibley, who derived his information
from a chief of the Osages. " He stated that the mound was built, when
he was a boy, over the body of a chief, called Jean Defoe by the French,
who unexpectedly died while his warriors were absent on a hunting
expedition. Upon their return they heaped a mound over his remains,
enlarging it at intervals for a long period, until it reached its present
height." — Featherstonhaugh' 's Trav., p. 70.

MOUNDS, BONE-HEAPS, ETC. 113

accompanying the President's message for 1806, of a "mound
of considerable size," erected by the Natchez Indians, near
Nachitoches, when they were expelled from Louisiana in 1728.
They are also said to have fortified themselves near this place.
Mr. Catlin observed a conical mound, ten feet in height, at the
celebrated pipe-stone quarries of the Cotcau des Prairies, which
had been erected over the body of a young chief of the Sioux
tribe, who had been accidentally killed on the spot.* James
also presents, upon what he deems good authority, an account
of the discovery by a hunting party, in 1816, on the banks of
the Le Mine river in Missouri, of a newly-made mound ; which,
when opened, disclosed the body of a white officer, clothed in
regimentals, placed in a sitting posture on a mat, and surrounded
by a rude inclosure of logs, twelve feet long, three wide and
four high. He had evidently met a violent death, and had
been scalped. f To what nation he belonged, and by whom the
mound was erected, is unknown. The Mandans sometimes
constructed little mounds of earth, not however for burial.
They were connected, in some mysterious way, with their cere
monies for the dead. " Their dead," says Catlin, " are placed,
closely enveloped in skins, upon scaffoldings, above the reach
of wild animals. When the scaffolds decay and fall to the
ground, the nearest relatives bury the bones excepting the
skull. The skulls are arranged in circles of a hundred or
more, on the prairies, with their faces all looking to the centre.
In the centre of each ring is erected a little mound, three feet
high, on which are placed two buffalo skulls, a male and female,
and in the centre is reared a medicine pole, supporting many
curious articles of mystery and superstition, which they suppose
to have the power of guarding and protecting this sacred
arrangement. Here the relatives of the dead resort to hold
converse with them, bringing a dish of food, which is set before

*. N. A. Indians, vol. II. p. 170. f Narrative, vol. I., p. 84.

114

ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

the skull at night, and taken away in the morning. Under
each skull is constantly kept a bunch of fresh wild sage."*

The Indians, it is well known, often heaped a pile of stones
over the graves of such of their tribe as met their death by
accident, or in the manner of whose death there was something
sufficiently peculiar to excite their superstition. Such was the
case, in one instance, in Scoharie county, on the Cherry Val
ley trail. But the construction of mounds, whether for pur
poses of burial or as monuments, except, perhaps, among some
of the Southern tribes, was far from common, and cannot be
regarded as a custom of general acceptance. The few which
they built were clearly, in most instances, the result of caprice,
or of circumstances ; and we are not justified in ascribing to
them more than a very trifling proportion of the numerous
tumuli which dot over the plains and valleys of the West, and
which in their numbers, and uniformity of structure and con
tents, give conclusive evidence that they were constructed for
specific purposes, in accordance with a well-recognized design,
and an established and prevailing custom.

The practice of depositing the property of the dead in the
tomb with them, (almost universal among the American Indians.)
is of the highest antiquity. " In all early ages," remarks an
erudite writer, " when the disengaged activity of man ever car
ries a keen and military edge with it, and his great employ
ment is necessarily war and the chase, the weapons of both
would naturally be deposited with the dead." We have a strik
ing passage of Scripture, which shows the custom to have. been
as general as the spirit of ambition or the profession of arms.
" They shall not lie down with the mighty which are gone down
to hell [the grave] with their weapons of war ; and they have
laid their swords under their heads." Josephus tells us, that
in David's sepulchre was deposited such a quantity of treasure,
that Hyrcanus, the Maccabean, took 3000 talents out of it,

* N. A. Indians, Vol. L, p. 90.

MOUNDS, BONE-HEAPS, ETC. 115

about 1300 years after David's death, to get rid of Antiochus
then besieging Jerusalem.

Uniformity in the rites and ceremonies attending burial
must not, however, be regarded as necessarily implying connec
tions or relations between the nations exhibiting them, for
most, if not all of those which may be esteemed of importance,
had their origin in those primitive conceptions and notions
which are inherent in man, and are in no wise derivative. In
the universal recognition of a future existence, may be traced
the origin of the immolations and sacrifices made at the tombs
or on the pyres of the dead ; the wife and the faithful servant
sought to accompany their lord in his future life ; and a
numerous retinue was slain at the tomb of the Scythian King
and the Peruvian Inca, that they might appear in a future
state with a dignity and pomp becoming their earthly great
ness. The Mexican slew the techichi at the grave of the dead,
that his soul might have a companion in its journey along the
dreary, terror-infested pathway, which, according to their
superstitions, intervened between earth and the " blessed man
sions of the sun." So, too, was the faithful dog of the Indian
hunter placed beside him in the grave, that in the blissful
" hunting grounds of the West," he might " bear him com
pany." The warlike Scandinavian had his horse sacrificed on
his funeral pyre, and his weapons buried with him, so that,
full-armed and mounted, he might, with becoming state,
approach the halls of Odin. — (Mallet, Chap, xii.) In the
almost universal belief that the soul of the dead, for a longer
or shorter period, lingered around the ashes from which it was
separated, we may discover the reason why food and offerings
were deposited at the grave ; why it was carefully preserved,
and why, at stated intervals, the surviving relatives of the
deceased decked it with flowers and performed games around
it. In some of these ceremonies it was believed the departed
spirit silently participated, and with all, it was supposed to be
pleased and gratified.

CHAPTER V.

IMPLEMENTS, ORNAMENTS, ETC.

MOST of the minor relics of art discovered in the State of
New York, are such as are known to have been common
among the Iroquois and other tribes which once occupied its
territories. The character of these is so well known as to ren
der unnecessary any detailed notice of the various articles
obtained in the course of the explorations here recorded. A
brief reference to the more remarkable specimens is therefore
all which will be attempted.

Upon the site of every Indian town, as also within all of the
ancient inclosures, fragments of pottery occur in great abun
dance. It is rare, however, that any entire vessels are recov
ered. Those which have been found, are for the most part
gourd-shaped, with round bottoms, and having little protuber
ances near the rim, or oftener a deep groove, whereby they
could be suspended. A few cases have been known in which
this form was modified, and the bottoms made sufficiently flat
to sustain the vessel in an upright position. Fragments found
in Jefferson county seem to indicate that occasionally the ves
sels were moulded in forms nearly square, but with rounded
angles. The usual size was from one to four quarts ; but some
must have contained not less than twelve or fourteen quarts.
In general there was no attempt at ornament ; but sometimes
the exteriors of the pots and vases were elaborately if not taste
fully ornamented with dots and lines, which seem to have been
formed in a very rude manner with a pointed stick or sharpened
bone. Bones which appear to have been adapted for this pur
pose are often found. After the commencement of European
intercourse, kettles and vessels of iron, copper, brass, and tin,

IMPLEMENTS, ORNAMENTS, ETC.

117

quickly superseded the productions of the primitiye potter,
whose art at once fell into disuse. Pipes and various articles
of clay, which may be denominated terra cottas, continued,
nevertheless, to be made. The pipes of native manufacture
were preferred, as they still are, to those of European or Amer
ican production. After the introduction of tools, and as soon
as the Indians became acquainted with foreign models, great
improvement was made in their manufacture. The following
examples will furnish very good illustrations of the forms of
the Indian pipe.

Fio. 14.

Fig. 14 was found within an inclosure in Jefferson county,
Plate IV., No. 4. It is engraved one half the size of the
original. It is of fine red clay, smoothly moulded, and two
serpents, rudely imitated, are represented coiling around the
bowl. Bushels of fragments of pipes have been found within
the same inclosure. Some appear to have been worked in the
form of the human head, others in representations of animals,
and others still in a variety of regular forms.

FIG. 15.

118

ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

Fig. 15 was found within another in closure in the same
county. It differs from the first only in respect of size.

Fig. 16 was found on the site of an old Seneca town, in the

FIG. 16.

town of Livonia, Livingston county. It resembles the other in
shape, but is of darker color, and not so well burned. The
difference to be observed between it and the others may be
ascribed entirely to the difference in the clay composing it.

Fig. 1 7. This is a greatly reduced representation of an article
of stone found near Mount Morris, in Livingston county, and
now in the New York State Cabinet at Albany. It is composed
of steatite or " soap stone," and in shape corresponds generally
with the pipes of stone found in the mounds of the Mississippi
Valley. If intended for a pipe, which seems most likely, it
was never finished, as the cavity of the bowl is merely indicated.
One or two pipes of stone of very nearly the same shape have
been found in this vicinity, but in point of symmetry or finish
they are in no way comparable to those of the mounds.

IMPLEMENTS. ORNAMENTS, ETC. 119

Some pipes of precisely the same material, and of identical
workmanship with those found in the ancient inclosures, have
been discovered in modern Indian graves, in Cayuga county.
One of these, in the form of a bird, and having eyes made of
silver inserted in the head, is now in possession of the author.
Various articles of European or American manufacture were
found in the same grave.

The most beautiful terra cotla which I found in the State,
and which in point of accuracy and delicacy of finish is unsur
passed by any similar article which I have seen of aboriginal
origin, is the head of a fox. of which Fig. 1 8 is a full-size
engraving. The engraving fails in conveying the spirit of the

FIG. IS.

original, which is composed of fine clay, slightly burned. It
seems to have been once attached to a body, or perhaps to a
vessel of some kind. It closely resembles some of the terra
cottas from the mounds of the West and Southwest. It was
found upon the site of an ancient inclosure in Jefferson county,
in the town of Ellisburgh, near the beautiful village of Pierre-
pont Manor.

Figs. 19 and 20 were found upon the site of an abandoned
Seneca village, in the town of Mendon, Monroe county. The
spot is now known as the " Ball Farm," and is remarkable for
the number and variety of its ancient relics. Vast quantities
of these have been removed from time to time. Some of the

120

ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

miniature representations of animals found here are remark
able for their accuracy.

Fio. 19.

The stone ax or hatchet
may be found from Cape
Horn to Baffin's Bay. Spe
cimens taken from the inter
vening localities can be dis
tinguished from each other
only by the difference of the
materials of which they are
composed. I have found
them in Nicaragua precisely
resembling those of New
York. Little, therefore, need
be said concerning them.
Fig. 21 was obtained in the
vicinity of an ancient work
on the Susquehanna River,
in Pennsylvania, near the
New York State line. It is
remarkable for its symme
try and size, and also for
the manner in which it is
hollowed upon the inner

FIG. 21.

IMPLEMENTS, ORNAMENTS, ETC.

121

side. This last-named feature is well indicated in the engrav
ing.

Figs. 22 and 23 present a front and reverse view of a very
fine stone ax, found in Livingston county, near Avon Springs.

FIG. 22. FIG. 23.

The material is of intense hardness, resembling porphyry. It
is. nevertheless, worked with mathematical accuracy, and highly
polished. The edge is very sharp. It is as fine a specimen
of the Indian stone ax as ever fell under my notice.

Fig. 24 is of a greenish-colored slate,
and resembles a kind of ornamental hatch
et, made of delicate material, which is
found at the South and West. It was
obtained near Springport, Cayuga coun
ty. For examples of similar articles, the
reader is referred to the first volume of
the Smithsonian Contributions to Know
ledge, p. 218. Fl°- 24-

One of the most interesting relics which has yet been dis
covered in the State, is an ax of cast copper, of which Fig. 25
6

122 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

is a reduced engraving. The original is four inches long by
two and a half broad on the edge, and corresponds in shape
with some of those of wrought native copper, which have been
found in the mounds of Ohio. From the granulations of the
surface, it appears to have been cast in sand. There is no
evidence of its having been used for any
purpose. Its history, beyond that it was
ploughed up somewhere in the vicinity of
Auburn, Cayuga county, is unknown. No
opportunity has yet been afforded of analyz
ing any portion, so as to determine wheth
er it has an intermixture of other metals.
It appears to be pure copper. An inspec
tion serves to satisfy the inquirer that it is
of aboriginal origin ; but the questions when
and by whom made, are beyond our ability
to answer. There is no evidence that the
mound-builders understood the smelting of metals ; on the
contrary, there is every reason to believe that they obtained
their entire supply in a native state, and worked it cold. The
Portuguese chronicler of Soto's Expedition into Florida, men
tions copper hatchets, and rather vaguely refers to a " smelting
of copper," in a country which he did not visit, far to the
northward, called " Chisca." The Mexicans and Peruvians
made hatchets of copper alloyed with tin. It would seem that
this hatchet was obtained from that direction, or made by
some Indian artisan after intercourse with the whites had
instructed him in the art of working metals. At present it
is prudent to say that the discovery of this relic is an anom
alous fact, which investigators should only bear in mind, with
out venturing to make it the basis of deductions or inferences
of any kind.

Fig. 26 is an example of the iron ax introduced among
the Indians by the French. Thousands of these are found
in the western counties of the State.

IMPLEMENTS, ORNAMENTS, ETC.

123

\

Figs. 27, 28, and 29 are selected by the

author from the collection of relics made

in the progress of these explorations, from

their resemblance to relics of common oc
currence in the mounds of the Mississippi

Valley. Fig. 27 is almost identical in shape

and material with some of the articles from

the mounds, described on page 237 of the
first volume of the Smith
sonian Contributions. The
same may be observed of
Fig. 28. The material is
the green, variegated slate, of which so many
of the above-named relics are composed.
No. 27 was found near Scottsville, Wheat-
land township, Monroe county ; and No. 28,
near Springport, Cayuga county. Near this

FIG. 26.

FIG. 28

Fio. 27.

124

ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

place, also, was found the disk, Fig. 29. It is of green slate,
and corresponds entirely with those described on
page 221 of the same volume with the preceding.

FIG. 29.

Fig. 30 is the point of a fish-spear, made of the
ulna of the deer ; found in Livingston county.
Figs. 31 and 32 are of the
same material, and were used
as bodkins, or for working
clay ; found in Jefferson
county.

FIG. 30.

FIG. 32.

FIG. 31.

IMPLEMENTS, ORNAMENTS, ETC. 125

Besides these relics, quantities of beads of stone, bone, and
shell, ornaments of many kinds and of various materials, as also
implements of aboriginal, or European, or American fabric, are
found all over the State, but in more abundance in the western
counties. They are not of sufficient importance to merit a de
tailed notice, and are chiefly interesting as relics of a race fast
disappearing, and whose existence will soon be known to his
tory alone. It is to be hoped that, however insignificant they
may seem, they may be carefully preserved and treasured for
public inspection, in places or institutions designated for the
purpose.*

In the preceding pages, several places have been mentioned,
where it appears that various branches of aboriginal art were
specially carried on. Such was the case at the point opposite
Tonawanda island, on the banks of the Niagara River, where

* I am glad to have it in my power to say, that at the urgent sugges
tion of Mr. L. H. Morgan, of Rochester, sustained by the recommenda
tions of other citizens of the State, the Regents of the University of
New York have not only determined to establish a "Historical and
Antiquarian Collection," in connection with the State Cabinet of Natural
History, but have already made a very creditable beginning. "But
few remains of the skill and industry of our predecessors," says Mr.
Morgan, in his letters to the Regents, " have come down to us to illus
trate the era of Indian occupation. The low state of the arts which
existed among them, detracts from the interest with which their relics
would otherwise be invested. Such specimens of their arts as we discov
er are rude to the last degree, and bespeak a social condition of extreme
simplicity. But as illustrations of the state of the aborigines, and as
furnishing the unwritten history of their social existence, however
inconsiderable they may be in every ordinary sense, they should be
sought out and preserved. * * * The utmost efforts of a single
person would accumulate but a small cabinet. Numerous individuals
in the State have, however, small collections, which singly have little
interest, but which, if brought together, would become valuable, and
there is every reason to believe that most of these would be cheerfully
surrendered to a general cabinet." It is to be hoped that every citizen
of the State who may be possessed of relics of any kind, will take means
to place them in the State Collection.

12(5 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

the great quantities of flint chippings show there was once a
kind of manufactory of arrow-heads. These seem to have been
made of the chert, so common among the limestone formations
of that region. At various places at the "West, are found the
quarries where the ancient inhabitants obtained the material
for the manufacture of their arrow and spear-points. Upon the
line of the calcareo-silicious deposit, extending through Licking
and Muskingum counties in Ohio, constituting what is called
"Flint Ridge," are numerous traces of Indian operations. The
material found here is admirably adapted for the purposes de
sired, and arrow-heads manufactured from it are to be found
in Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois and Michigan. " The compact
silicious material of which this ridge is made up," says Dr Hil-
dreth in the Geological Report of Ohio, "seems to have
attracted the notice of the aborigines, who have manufactured
it largely into arrow and spear-heads, if we may be allowed to
judge from the numerous circular excavations which have been
made in mining the rock, and the piles of chipped quartz lying
on the surface. How extensively it has been worked for these
purposes, may be imagined from the countless number of the pits;
experience having taught them that the rock recently dug from
the earth, could be split with more freedom than that which
had lain exposed to the weather. These excavations are found
the whole length of the outcrop, from Jackson to Muskingum,
but more abundantly at " Flint Ridge," where it is most com
pact and diversified with rich colors. To the present inhabit
ants it is valuable as furnishing a fine article for mill-stones."

Mr. J. W. Foster, in his report, alludes to the same locality
as follows :

" The stone is fine grained and compact. The aborigines
used it for spear and arrow-heads. They seem to have been
aware that it works more freely when freshly dug from the earth,
than after exposure to the air. They have therefore stripped
off the earth to the depth of eight or ten feet. Excavations of

IMPLEMENTS, ORNAMENTS, ETC.

127

this kind, occupying acres in extent, occur three miles west of
H. Lear's, on the ' Flint Ridge ' road."

This locality has a remarkable parallel in what are called
the " Pen Pits," in South Wiltshire, England. These cover
an area of several hundred acres, and are supposed to have been
dug in order to procure a variety of hard green-stone, (a quarry
of which underlies the plain,) for the construction of the ancient
Celtic querns or mill-stones, fragments of which, partially worked,
are found scattered about.*

Mr. Featherstonhaugh describes some ancient quarries of the
mineral, which he visited, about three miles from the Hot
Springs of Arkansas.

" Ascending a very lofty hill, composed entirely of this min
eral, [novaculite ?] we found several large pits, resembling in
verted cones, some of which were from twenty to thirty feet
deep and as many in diameter, the insides and bottoms of which
were covered with chips of this beautiful mineral, some white,
some carmine, and many quite opalescent. In and near these
pits, round and long pieces of hard green-stone — which I had
seen in a place about eighteen miles distant — -were scattered
about, but none of these too large for the hand. These were
undoubtedly the quarries from whence the Indians obtained
the materials for making their arrow-heads and spears. The
pieces of hard green-stone were the tools which the Indians
worked with, and the rough mineral, when procured, was taken
to their villages to be manufactured."!

Edwin James, the Naturalist of Long's expedition, mentions
an island in the Ohio, 23 miles below the rapids, called " Flint
Island," from the great quantities of fragments of that material
found upon it. He supposes it to have been a particular resort

* Hist. Anct. Wiltshire, vol. I., p. 35.
f Travels in America, p. 111.

128 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

for the manufacture of spear and arrow-heads, by the abori
gines.*

The manufacture of pottery is the simplest of arts, and its
practice in different localities, affords no evidence whatever of
derivative character. It would naturally be suggested by the
impressions made in the moist clay or soil, by the hands or feet,
and would first be practiced where the proper material most
abounds, as in the valleys of great rivers. This suggestion is
corroborated, by our finding the earliest fictile establishments
in the neighborhood of rivers, more or less subject to periodical
inundation; the Babylonians, the Egyptians and the Etrurians
became potters from their vicinity to the Euphrates, the Nile
and the rivers of Northern Italy. In their shape, the vessels of
the primitive manufacturer would be most apt to take the form
of the natural models he might observe around him. The type
of the earliest and rudest productions, was the shell of a nut
or the rind of some of the pumpkin tribe ; and this to such an
extent, that those acquainted with the vegetable productions of
different countries, are generally able, at a glance, to identify
their productions in pottery. Those who have examined the col
lection in the Museum of Severs, will perceive that the distinc
tive characters of Asia, Africa and America, are marked on the
potteries of their less-civilized inhabitants. The second type —
one that marks considerable progress — is the female bust, with
sometimes an attempt to preserve its character as symbolic of

* Narrative, vol. L, p. 30.

" A hunter or warrior, it is true, expected to make his own arms or
implements, yet the manufacture of flint and hornstone into darts, and
spears, and arrow-heads, demanded too much skill and mechanical dex
terity, for the generality of the Indians to succeed in. According to the
Chippeway tradition, before the introduction of firearms, there was a
class of men among the northern tribes who were called Makers of Ar
row-heads. They selected proper stones, and devoted themselves to
this art, taking in exchange for their manufactures, the skins and flesh
of animals."— Schooler aft.

IMPLEMENTS, ORNAMENTS, ETC. 129

fecundity and abundance. This graceful type was carried to a
voluptuous excess by the Greeks. Other subordinate types of
form, suggested by eggs, shells, etc., might be noticed. Suffi
cient has been said, however, to enforce the remark made at
the commencement of this paragraph, and to show how unsafe
would be the attempt to deduce dependences or connections,
upon so narrow a basis as simple coincidences in the potteries
of detached nations.

It may be remarked, incidentally, that the degree of skill
exhibited in the pottery from the mounds of the West, could
only be the result of long practice. The hunter could not have
laid aside the bow, and produced works of so much symmetry
and so excellent finish. We are justified, therefore, in the be
lief, that the manufacture, in this department, devolved upon a
class of professional potters, or, at any rate, that it was in the
hands of persons, whose experience extended beyond the simple
supplying of their individual wants with works of this descrip
tion.

In all the various specimens of aboriginal pottery which have
fallen under notice, we find no evidence of the use of the pot
ters' wheel. Notwithstanding the regularity of figure and uni
formity of thickness which many of the specimens exhibit, it is
evident that they were all moulded by hands.

In the immediate vicinity of some of the salt springs, quan
tities of broken pottery are often found. This feature has been
particularly observed near the Illinois, Missouri, and Ohio
Salines. Breckenridge states, that, in clearing out the Saline
below St. Grenevieve, in Missouri, some years ago, "wagon-loads
of earthenware, some fragments bespeaking vessels as large as
a barrel," were found.* These remains have generally been
regarded as pertaining to the race of the mounds, on the
assumption that the more recent tribes were unacquainted with
the art of manufacturing salt, if they were not entirely ignorant

6*

* Views of Louisiana, p. 186.

130 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

of its uses. This is a mistake. We have direct evidence that,
at the very earliest periods of European intercourse, they were
accustomed to manufacture that article. It is specially referred
to, and the process described by the unknown historian of De
Soto's expedition.* The Salines in Jackson county, Ohio,
(23 miles from Chillicothe,) exhibit proofs of having been
worked, not only in the presence of broken pottery, but by
excavations in the rock, in which the brine was collected.
These excavations, resembling "pot holes," are specially
remarkable at the ancient and noted " Scioto Saline," in the
county above-named. Dr. Hildreth describes them as follows.
" When the white hunters and traders came to this country,
it was visited by thousands of buffalo, deer, bears, and nearly all
the wild animals of the forest, who found the saline waters
agreeable to their tastes or needful for their health. So nu
merous and so constant were the animal visitors of these springs,
that, at certain seasons of the year, the country adjacent was
the most valuable and profitable hunting ground which the
Indians possessed. They were also in the habit of making
salt here from very remote times, as has been ascertained from
several of their white captives, who had visited them in company
with the Indians. The first attempt at its manufacture by the
whites, was after the close of the Indian war, in the year 1797.
At that time, and for several years after, the stumps of small
trees cut by the squaws, and the ashes, etc., of their fires, where
the salt water had been boiled, were plainly to be seen. The
Indian women, upon whom all the servile employments fell,
collected the salt water by cutting holes in the soft sandstone
in the bed of the creek, in the summer and autumn when the
water was low. These were generally not more than a foot or
two deep, and the same in width. Into these rude cavities the
salt water slowly collected, and was afterwards dipped out and
boiled into salt in their vessels. The hunters and first salt

* Hakluyt's Trans., pp. 736, 749, ubi supra.

IMPLEMENTS, ORNAMENTS, ETC. 131

makers pursued the same course, only they sunk their excava
tions to the depth of six or eight feet, and finally to the depth
of twenty feet into the rock ."*

It will be seen that the Salines possessed peculiar attrac
tions for the modern tribes. The abundance of their relics,
therefore, in such localities is a matter of no surprise.!

* First Annual Report of Geolog. Surv. of Ohio, p. 57.

•f The subjoined passages, from various authors, relating to the man
ufacture of pottery by the existing Indians, no doubt indicate, with
great exactness, the modes adopted by the ancient tribes.

" The earthenware is formed by the women, who not only form the
vessel, but dig and mix the clay. In this they are tolerable artists ;
they make kettles of an extraordinary size, pitchers with a small open
ing, gallon bottles with long necks, pots or pitchers, for their bear-oil,
which will hold forty pints — lastly, large and small plates in the French
fashion."— Du Pratz1 Hist, of Louis., p. 360.

" In manufacturing their pottery for cooking and domestic purposes,
they collect tough clay, beat it into powder, temper it with water, and
then spread it over blocks of wood, which are formed into shapes to suit
their convenience or fancy. When sufficiently dried, they are removed
from the moulds, placed in proper situations and burned to a hardness
suitable to the intended uses. Another method practiced by them, is
to coat the inner surface of baskets of willow or rushes with clay to any
required thickness, and when dry to burn them as above described. In
this way they construct large, handsome, and tolerably durable ware ;
though, latterly, with such tribes as had much intercourse with the
whites, it is not much used, because of the substitution of metal ware
in their stead.

" When the vessels are large, as in the case for the manufacture of
sugar, they are suspended by grape-vines, which, when exposed to the
fire, are constantly kept covered with moist clay. Sometimes the rims
are made strong, and project a little inwardly, quite round the vessels,
so as to admit of their being sustained by flattened pieces of wood, slid
underneath these projections, and extending across the centres." — Hun
ter's Memoirs of a Captivity among the Indians, p. 289.

" They make earthen pots of very different sizes so as to contain
from two to ten gallons ; large pitchers to carry water, bowls, dishes,
platters, basins, and a prodigious number of other vessels of such anti
quated forms as would be tedious to describe, and impossible to name.

132 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

Great numbers of beads, some of late and others of ancient
origin, are scattered all over the sites of Indian occupancy in
New York. These ornaments have predominated in every age,
and among every people, and still maintain their popularity
in the most refined communities — one of the relics of the rude
state from which all people have, at some period, advanced.
The American nations, the hunter tribes no less than the con
solidated communities of the centre of the continent, were pro
fuse in their use of this species of ornament. The poor but
intrepid hunter of the bleak Narraganset was as proud of his
rude " braveries " of shell, patiently rubbed into the required
shape on the rocks, as the regal Aztec with his necklace of
pearls, relieved with gold and gems. The unknown builders
of Palenque and the other Palmyras of the tangled evergreen
forests of the south, have left engraven upon their sculptured
edifices and elaborate statues, the evidence of the importance
assigned to this class of ornaments in the list of preserved
decorations of their day. So, too, have the mound -builders

Their method of glazing them is, they place them over a large fire of
smoky pitch pine, which makes them smooth, black, and firm. Their
lands abound in proper clay for that use." — Adair, p. 424.

" Their pots and boilers are made of clay, mixed with pounded sea-
shells, and burned so hard that they are black throughout."— Loskiel,
p. 54.

" The earthen dishes are made by the Mandan women in great quan
tities, and modeled in a thousand forms and tastes. They are made
from a tough, black clay, and baked in kilns which are made for the
purpose, and are nearly equal in hardness to our own manufacture of
pottery, though they have not yet got the art of glazing. They make
them so strong and serviceable, however, that they hang them over the
fire as we do our iron kettles, and boil their meat in them with perfect
success. I have seen some few specimens of such manufacture dug up
from mounds and tombs in the southern and middle states, which were
looked upon as a great wonder ; when here, this novelty is at once done
away with, and the whole mystery; where women can be seen handling
them by hundreds, moulding them in fanciful forms, and passing them
through the kilns."— Coin's N. A. Indians, vol. I., p. 116.

IMPLEMENTS, ORNAMENTS, ETC. 133

left us beside the bones of their dead, and upon the ancient
altars of their religion, the evidence that they fully shared the
general taste.

One form of bead, the wampum, or seawant, peak,or roanok
of the North American Indians, not only constituted the most
common ornament of their persons, but subserved the purposes
of a currency, and figured in their operations of war and peace.
Like the quippos of Peru, the wampum was sometimes used to
commemorate or record events, and was also regarded as sacred.
" The strings and belts of wampum," says Loskiel, " are also docu
ments by which the Indians remember the chief articles of
treaties made either between themselves or the white people.
They refer to them as public records, carefully preserving them
for that purpose. At certain seasons they meet to study their
meaning, and to renew the ideas of which they were an em
blem and confirmation." It is said that the Delawares once
kept an account of time by putting a bead of wampum every
year upon a belt kept for that purpose. In the records, beads
of a certain color were assigned a particular meaning, and their
arrangement and the figures which their combination furnished,
were the mnemonic symbols by which circumstances and events
were recalled. Red was the emblem of war, white of peace.
Thus if it were designed to give warning of an approaching
evil, or to send an earnest remonstrance, a black belt was deliv
ered ; if to declare war, a red belt wrought with the figure of
a hatchet in white, etc. — (Smith's Hist, of New York. Char-
levoix1 Canada, vol. I., p. 320.) In treaties, the exchange of a
wampum belt was equivalent to a ratification. A certain num
ber of fathoms was a tribute to powerful neighbors. In its use
as a currency, separate values were assigned to the different
colors ; the black was double the value of the white. Its man
ufacture was open to all who chose to engage in it, and
its use so general, that the early colonists in New England,
New York, and Virginia, adopted it in their exchanges. The
revenues of the colonies were sometimes paid in it, and

134 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

appropriations of a certain amount of wampoag are to be found
in the early Legislative records of Connecticut, and probably
of other States. Among the Dutch of New Netherlands, six
white beads of wampum, or three brown or black beads, were
equivalent to a stiver, and received as such.*

These beads were made of the compact portions of shells.
If of marine shells the columella alone was used. Says Van
der Donk, in his history of New Netherlands : " The wampum
is made of conch-shells, which are taken from the sea, or which
are cast ashore twice a year. They strike off the thin portions
of these shells, and preserve the pillars or standards, which
they grind even and smooth, and reduce the same to uniform
thickness, and drill a hole through every piece, and string the
same on strings, which they afterward sell. This is the only
article of moneyed medium among the natives, with which any
traffic can be driven ; and it is also common with us in pur
chasing necessaries and carrying on our trade ; many thousand

* Mr. Schoolcraft, in his " Notes on the Iroquois," suggests an anti
quarian nomenclature, the principle of which he applies to a limited
extent, in the classification of certain relics, chiefly ornamental. The
radical names are introduced from the Indian vocabulary, qualified by
expletives drawn either from the same source or the English — constitut
ing terms " which shall, as far as practicable, be descriptive in their cha
racter." The design is stated to be, "to render antiquarian examination
exact, and facilitate comparison," so as to relieve archaeological inquiry
from much of the vagueness which attends it. The object is certainly
a desirable one ; but whether it could be attained in the manner proposed
is, at least, doubtful. In the very limited application of the system
attempted by Mr. Schoolcraft, out of nine radical divisions or classes,
we have no less than seven, each embracing several subdivisions or vari
eties, which comprise in their whole range only such articles as might
be defined with sufficient exactness, as beads and pendants. Whether
archaeological science would be greatly advanced by the substitution of
"Meddeka Dental " for perforated bear's tooth, or " Attajeguna Deoseowa "
for Stone mortar, is a question which the student of natural history,
floundering in the sea of modern scientific nomenclature, is best able to

IMPLEMENTS, ORNAMENTS, ETC. 135

strings are exchanged every year for peltries near the sea-shore,
where the wampum is only made, and where the peltries are
brought for sale." After the introduction of glass and enamel
beads by the traders, the wampum deteriorated in value, and be
came quite restricted in its use and manufacture. Catlin men
tions, as a singular fact, that the far west Indians make no use
of it, while along the frontier, below the Missouri Sioux, the
different tribes are found loaded down and beautifully orna
mented with it. With the introduction of the traders' tinselry,
the wampum has lost its significance, and it is believed is no
longer used for records, or in the transmission of messages of
peace or defiance.

Some of the beads found in the mounds, bear a close resem
blance to those in use among the Southern Indians. Adair
describes large cylindrical beads, " made of the conch-shell,
about the length and thickness of a man's forefinger," which
bore a near resemblance to ivory, and were attached to the
crown of the head, and " so highly valued, that four deer-skins
was the price paid for them."* The same author adds : " Be
fore we supplied them with our European beads, they had great
quantities of wampum, made out of the conch-shell, by rubbing
on the hard stones, and so they form them according to their
liking. These are bought and sold for a stated current rate,
without variation for time or circumstances."

The late Prof. Troost, of Nashville, Tenn., found similar beads
in the so-called "pigmy graves" in that vicinity; he also found
beads composed of the shells of the marginella, which, like many
of those found in Ohio, were ground in such a manner that a
string could pass through their mouth and perforated back.
He observes : " Other beads were made of the columella of the

* Ornaments, doubtless very similar to these, and called Runtees, were
common among the Virginia Indians. Beverly describes these in a
summary way as " made of shell, as the Peak is, only the shape is flat
and round like a cheese, and they are drilleU edgeways." Hist. Va. p.
145.

136 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

strombus gigas : I am positive it was of that part of this shell,
as I have found these beads in all stages of manufacture from
commencement to completion. These columella are often found
on the shores of the West Indies ; when the animal of these
shells is dead, the shell is constantly rolled and worn down by
the waves on the beach, so that the outside and interior whorls
soon disappear, and nothing but the solid columella remains.
Such columella I have found in a partially decomposed state in
the graves — I- have found these artificially worn down to a
uniform thickness, and perforated through the centre — I have
found them cut in pieces of the size of the beads, and I have
found the beads perfect." Professor Troost remarks further
that " these are tropical shells, and could not, therefore, have
been obtained from the North, nor have been found in the in
terior of the country ; they could not have been bought of travel
ing pedlers, because it is not to be supposed that such rude people
knew anything of commerce ; the aborigines must, consequently,
themselves have brought them from those southern regions —
not during their hunting excursions, for we are about 2000
miles from the places where they are found." Prof Troost
probably under-estimates the extent of exchange and transfer
among even very rude tribes ; supposing, however, the race
occupying the stone graves, to be the same which built the
mounds, (as certain coincidences in the character of their re
mains would seem to indicate,) and his conclusion is sustained
by developments from the mounds on the Ohio, which are irre
sistible in their tendency — establishing a migration from the
South, or an alternative altogether opposed to a natural or prob
able course of events. Mr. T. Conrad (American Journal of
Science and Arts, New Series, vol. II., p. 41) mentions the
strombus gigas as occurring on the coast of Florida, but not
above the latitude of Tampa Bay.

CHAPTER VI.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROBABLE ORIGIN OP THE ABORIGINAL
MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

BY whom were the aboriginal monuments of Western New
York erected, and to what era may they be ascribed ? The
consideration of these questions has given rise to a vast amount
of speculation, generally not of the most philosophical, nor yet
of the most profitable kind. If the results arrived at have
been erroneous, unsatisfactory, or extravagant, it may be as
cribed to the circumstance that the facts heretofore collected
have been too few in number and too poorly authenticated to
admit of correct conclusions, not less than to the influence of
preconceived notions, and to that constant leaning toward the
marvelous, which is a radical defect of many minds. Rigid
criticism is especially indispensable in archaeological investiga
tions ; yet there is no department of human research in which
so wide a range has been given to conjecture. Men seem to
have indulged the belief that here nothing is fixed, nothing
certain, and have turned aside into this field as one where the
severer rules which elsewhere regulate philosophical research
are not enforced, and where every species of extravagance may
be indulged in with impunity. I might adduce numberless
illustrations of this remark. The Indian who wrought the
rude outlines upon the rock at Dighton, little dreamed that his
work would ultimately come to be regarded as affording indu
bitable evidence of Hebrew, Phoenician, and Scandinavian
adventure and colonization in America ; and the builders of
the rude defences of Western New York, as little suspected
that Celt and Tartar, and even the apocryphal Madoc with

138

ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

his " ten ships," would, in this the nineteenth century of our
faith, be vigorously invoked to yield paternity to their labors !

The probable purposes to which these works were applied
are, perhaps, sufficiently evident from what has already been
presented. Their positions, general close proximity to water,
and other circumstances not less conclusive, imply a defensive
origin. The unequivocal traces of long occupancy found within
many of them, would further imply that they were fortified
towns and villages, and were permanently occupied. Some of
the smaller ones, on the other hand, seem rather designed for
temporary protection — the citadels in which the builders
sought safety for their old men, women, and children, in case
of alarm or attack.

In respect to date nothing positive can be affirmed. Many
of them are now covered with heavy forests ; a circumstance
upon which too much importance has been laid, and which in
itself may not necessarily be regarded as indicative of great
age, for we may plausibly suppose that it was not essential to
the purposes of the builders that the forests should be
removed. Still I have seen trees from one to three feet in
diameter standing upon the embankments and in the trenches ;
which would certainly carry back the date of their construction
several hundred years, perhaps beyond the period of the dis
covery in the fifteenth century. There is nothing, however, in
this circumstance, nor in any other bearing upon the subject,
which would necessarily imply that they were built by tribes
anterior to those found in occupation of the country by the
whites. And this brings us at once to the most interesting
point of our inquiry, viz. : By whom were these works erected ?

I have already mentioned that within them are found many
relics of art and many traces of occupancy. These, I had
ample opportunities of ascertaining in the course of my inves
tigations, are absolutely identical with those which mark the
sites of towns and forts known to have been occupied by the
Indians, within the historical period. The pottery taken from

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 139

these sites and from within the supposed ancient inclosures, is
alike in all respects ; the pipes and ornaments are undistin-
guishable ; and the indications of aboriginal dwellings are pre
cisely similar, and, so far as can be discovered, have equal claim
to antiquity. Near many of these works are found cemeteries,
in which well-preserved skeletons are contained, and which,
except in the absence of remains of European art, differ in no
essential respect from the cemeteries found in connection with
the abandoned modern towns and " castles " of the Indians.
There are other not less important facts and coincidences, all
of which go to establish that if the earth-works of Western
New York are of a remote ancient date, they were not only
secondarily but generally occupied by the Iroquois or neighbor
ing and contemporary nations ; or else — and this hypothesis is
most consistent and reasonable — they were erected by them.

It may be objected, that if the Indians constructed works of
this kind, it could not have escaped the notice of the early
explorers, and would have been made the subject of remark by
them. The omission is singular, but not unaccountable.
They all speak of the defences of the Indians as composed of
palisades firmly set in the ground. The simple circumstance
of the earth being heaped up around them, to lend them
greater firmness, may have been regarded as so natural and
simple an expedient, as not to be deserving of special mention,
particularly as the embankment, in such a case, would be an
entirely subordinate part of the structure. After the intro
duction of European implements, enabling the Indians to plant
their pickets more firmly in the ground, and to lend them a
security before unattainable, the necessity for an embankment
was in a great degree obviated. We may thus account for its
absence in their later structures, which also underwent some
modification of form, suggested by the example or instructions
of the whites, or by the new modes of warfare following the
introduction of firearms. Thus in the plan of the old Seneca

140 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK.

fort of Ganundasaga, we find distinct traces of the bastion — a
feature observable in none of the more ancient defences.

I am aware that the remnants of the Indian stock which still
exist in the State, generally profess total ignorance of these
works. I do not, however, attach much importance to this cir
cumstance. When we consider the extreme likelihood of the
forgetfulness of ancient practices, in the lapse of three hundred
years, the lack of knowledge upon this point is the weakest of
all negative evidence. Cusick, the Indian, in his so-called " His
tory of the Six Nations," has, no doubt, correctly described the
manner in which they constructed their early defences. " The
manner of making a fort : First, they set fire against as many
trees as it requires to make the inclosure, rubbing off the coals
with their stone axes, so as to make them burn faster. When
the tree falls, they put fires to it about three paces apart, and
burn it into pieces. These pieces are then brought to the spot
required, and set up around, according to the bigness of the
fort. The earth is then heaped on both sides. The fort has
generally two gates, one for passage and one to the water."
" The people," continues Cusick, " had implements with which
they made their bows and arrows. Their kettles were made
of baked clay ; their awls and needles of sharpened bones ; their
pipes of baked clay or soft stone ; a small turtle-shell was used
to peel the bark, and a small dry stick to make fire by boring
it against seasoned wood."

Golden observes of their defences, as they were constructed
in his time : " Their castles are generally a square surrounded
with palisades, without any bastions or outworks; for, since the
general peace, their villages all lie open."*

In full view of the facts before presented, I am driven to a
conclusion little anticipated when I started upon my explora
tion of the monuments of the State, that the earth-works of
Western New York were erected by the Iroquois or their west
ern neighbors, and do not possess an antiquity going very far

* History of the Five Nations, vol. I., p. 9.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 141

back of the discovery. Their general occurrence upon a line
parallel to and not far distant from the lakes, favors the hypoth
esis that they were built by frontier tribes — a hypothesis
entirely conformable to aboriginal traditions. Here, according
to these traditions, every foot of ground was contested between
the Iroquois and the Gah-kwas and other western tribes ; and
here, as a consequence, where most exposed to attack, were
permanent defences most necessary. It was not until after the
Confederation, that the Five Nations were able to check and
finally expel the warlike people which disputed with them the
possession of the beautiful and fertile regions bordering the
lakes ; and it is not impossible that it was the pressure from
this direction which led to that Confederation — an anomaly in
the history of the aborigines. Common danger, rather than a
far-seeing policy, may be regarded as the impelling cause of the
consolidation.

In conclusion, I may be permitted to observe, that the an
cient remains of Western New York, except so far as they
throw light upon the system of defence practiced by the abori
ginal inhabitants, and tend to show that they were to a degree
fixed and agricultural in their habits, have slight bearing upon
the grand ethnological and archaeological questions involved in
the ante- Columbian history of the continent. The resemblances
which they bear to the defensive structures of other rude na
tions, in various parts of the world, are the result of natural
causes, and cannot be taken to indicate either a close or re
mote connection or dependence. All primitive defences, being
designed to resist common modes of attack, are essentially the
same in their principles, and seldom differ very much in their
details. The aboriginal hunter and the semi-civilized Aztec
selected precisely similar positions for their fortresses, and
defended them upon the same general plan ; yet it would be
palpably unsafe to found conclusions as to the relations of the
respective builders, upon the narrow basis of these resemblances
alone.

CHAPTEK VII.

ANCIENT WORKS IN PENNSYLVANIA, OHIO, AND NEW HAMPSHIRE.

WITHOUT the boundaries of the State of New York, there
are works composed of earth, closely resembling those described
in the preceding pages. Among these may be named the
small earth-works of Northern Ohio, which the author himself
was at one time led to believe constituted part of the grand
system of the mound-builders.* The more extensive and
accurate information which he has now in his possession con
cerning them, as also concerning those of Western New York,
has led to an entire modification of his views, and to the con
viction that they are all of comparatively late date, and proba
bly of common origin.

Some similar works are said to occur in Canada ; but we
have no account at all satisfactory concerning them. One is
mentioned by Laing (Polynesian Nations, p. 109), upon the
authority of a third person, as situated upon the summit of a
precipitous ridge, near Lake Simcoe, and consisting of an
embankment of earth, inclosing a considerable extent of
ground. Mr. Schoolcraft also states that there are some
ancient enigmatical walls of earth in the vicinity of Dundas,
which extend several miles across the country, following the
leading ridges of land. These are represented to be from five
to eight miles in length, and not far from six feet high, with
passages at intervals, as if for gates (Oneota. p. 326). Our
knowledge concerning these is too limited to permit any con
jecture as to their design.

* Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, pp. 2, 46.

ANCIENT WORKS IN PENNSYLVANIA, ETC. 143

In the State of Pennsylvania, there are some remains, which
may be regarded as the " outliers " of those of New York.
They are confined to the upper counties. Those in the Valley
of Wyoming are best known. They have, however, been lately
so much obliterated, that it is probable they can be no longer
traced. One of the number was examined and measured in
1 8 1 7 by a gentleman of Wyoming, whose account is published
by Mr. Miner, in his " History of Wyoming."

" It is situated in the town of Kingston, Luzerne county,
upon a level plain, on the north side of Toby's Creek, about
one hundred and fifty feet from its bank, and about half a mile
from its confluence with the Susquehanna. It is of an oval or
elliptical form, having its longest diameter from northeast to
southwest, at right angles to the creek. Its diameters are
respectively 337 and 272 feet. On the southwest side appears
to have been a gateway, twelve feet wide, opening toward the
great eddy of the river into which the creek falls. It consist
ed of a single embankment of earth, which in height and
thickness appears to have been the same on all sides. Exte
rior to the wall is a ditch. The bank of the creek upon the
side toward the work is high and steep. The water in the
creek is ordinarily sufficiently deep to admit canoes to ascend
to the fortification from the river. When the first settlers
came to Wyoming, this plain was covered with its native for
ests, consisting principally of oak and yellow pine ; and the
trees which grew upon the work are said to have been as large
as those in any part of the valley. One large oak, upon being
cut down, was found to be 700 years old. The Indians have
no traditions concerning these fortifications; nor do they
appear to have any knowledge of the purposes for which they
were erected." — (Miner's History of Wyoming, p. 25.) Traces
of a similar work existed on " Jacob's Plains," on the upper
flats of Wilkesbarre. " It occupied the highest point on the
flats, which in the time of freshets appears like an island in the
sea of waters. In size and shape it coincides with that already

144 ANCIENT WORKS IN

described. High trees were growing upon the embankment
at the period of the first settlement of the country. It is
about eighty rods from the river, toward which opened a gate
way ; and the old settlers concur in stating that a well [cache?']
existed in the interior near the southern line. On the banks
of the river is an ancient burial-place, in which the bodies were
laid horizontally in regular rows. In excavating the canal
through the bank bordering the flats, perhaps thirty rods south
of the fort, another burial-place was disclosed, evidently more
ancient, for the bones crumbled to pieces almost immediately
upon exposure to the air, and the deposits were far more
numerous than in that near the river. The number of skele
tons are represented to have been countless, and the dead had
been buried in a sitting posture. In this place of deposit no
beads were found, while they were common in the other." —
(Miner's History, p. 28.)

Near this locality, which seems to have been a favorite one
with the Indians, medals bearing the head of the First George,
and other relics of European origin, are often discovered.

Still further to the northwest, near the borders of New
York, and forming an unbroken chain with the works of that
State, are found other remains. One of these, on the Tioga
River, near Athens, was ascribed by the Duke de Rochefou
cauld to the French, in the time of De Nonville ! He
describes it as follows :

" Near the confines of Pennsylvania, a mountain rises from
the banks of the River Tioga, in the shape of a sugar-loaf,
upon which are to be seen the remains of some entrenchments.
These are called by the inhabitants the l Spanish Ramparts,'
but I judge that they were thrown up against the Indians, in
the time of De Nonville. A breast-work is still remaining." —
(Travels in America.) A similar work, circular or elliptical in
outline, is said to exist in Lycoming county. Near it are
extensive cemeteries. — (Day's Hist. Coll., p. 455.)

In the New England States few traces of works of this kind

PENNSYLVANIA, OHIO, ETC.

145

are to be found. There are, however, some remains in the
State of New Hampshire, which, whatever their origin, are
entitled to notice. The subjoined plan of one of these is from
a sketch made in 1822 by Jacob B. Moore, Esq., late Libra-

33.

rian of the Historical Society of New York, who has also fur
nished the accompanying description.

"According to your request, I send the inclosed sketch and
7

146 ANCIENT WORKS IN

memoranda of an ancient fortification, supposed to have been
the work of the Penacook Indians, a once powerful tribe, whose
chief seat was in the neighborhood of Concord, New Hampshire.
The original name of the town was derived from that of the
tribe. The last of the Penacooks long since disappeared, and
with them have perished most of the memorials of their race.
Enough has come down to us, however, in tradition, added to
the brief notes of our historians, to show that the Penacooks
were once a numerous, powerful, and warlike tribe. Gookin
places them under the general division of the Pawtucketts,
which he calls ' the fifth great sachemship of Indians.'* Under
the name of Penacooks, were probably included all the Indians
inhabiting the valley of the Merrimack, from the great falls at
the Amoskeag to the Winnepiseogee Lake, and the great car
rying-place on the Pemigewasset. That they were one and the
same tribe, is rendered probable from the exact similarity of
relics, which have been found at different places, and from the
general resemblance of the remains of ancient fortifications,
which Tiave been traced near the lower falls of the Winnepise
ogee, in Franklin and Sanbornton, and on the table-land known
as the Sugar-Ball Plain, in Concord. Tradition ascribes to
each the purpose of defence against a common enemy, the
Maquaas or Mohawks of the west.

" The accompanying sketch was taken in pencil, on a visit
to the spot, in company with the Hon. James Clark and several
friends in the month of September, 1822. The remains are on
the west side of the Winnepiseogee, near the head of Little Bay,
in Sanbornton, New Hampshire. The traces of the walls were
at that time easily discerned, although most of the stones had
been removed to the mill-dam near at hand, on the river. On
approaching the site, we called upon a gentleman (James Gib
son) who had lived for many years near the spot, and of whom
we learnt the following particulars : He had lived in Sanborn-

* Gookin, in Mass. Hist. Coll., I., 149.

PENNSYLVANIA, OHIO, ETC. 147

ton fifty -two years, and had known the fort some time previous
to settling in the place. When he came to the town to reside,
the walls were two or three feet high, though in some places
they had fallen down, and the whole had evidently much dimin
ished in height, since the first erection. They were about
three feet in thickness, constructed of stones outwardly, and
filled in with clay, shells, gravel, etc., from the Ibed of the river
and shores of the bay. The stones of which the walls were
constructed were of no great size, and such as men in a savage
state would be supposed to use for such a purpose. They were
placed together with much order and regularity, and when of
their primitive height, the walls must have been very strong —
at least, sufficiently strong for all the purposes of defence
against an enemy to whom the use of firearms was unknown.

" The site of the fortification is nearly level, descending a
little from the walls to the bank of the river. "West, for the
distance of nearly half a mile, the surface is quite even. In front,
or east, on the opposite side of the river, are high banks, upon
which at that time stood a thick growth of wood. When the
first settlers discovered the fort, there were oak trees of large
size standing within the walls. Within the inclosure, and in
the mound and vicinity, were found innumerable Indian orna
ments, such as crystals cut into the rude shapes of diamonds,
squares, pyramids, etc., with ornamental pipes of stone and
clay — coarse pottery ornamented with various figures — arrow
heads, hatchets of stone, and other common implements of
peace and war.

" The small island in the bay appears to have been a burial-
place, from the great quantity of bones and other remains dis
closed by the plough, when settlements were commenced by the
whites. Before the island was cultivated, there were several
large excavations resembling cellars or wells discovered, for
what purpose constructed or used, can of course only be con
jectured. There is a tradition that the Penacooks, at the time

148 ANCIENT WORKS IN

of their destruction by the Maquaas, had three hundred birch
canoes in Little Bay.

"After writing thus far, I addressed a note to the Hon.
James Clark, of Franklin, New Hampshire, with inquiries as
to the present state of these ruins. Mr. Clark was kind enough
at once to make a special visit to the site of the ruins, in com
pany with Mr. Bamford, son of one of the first settlers. The
following is an extract from his reply :

" ' The remains of the walls are in part plainly to be traced ;
but the ground since our former examination has been several
years ploughed and cultivated, so as to now give a very indis
tinct view of what they were at our previous visit, when the
foundation of the whole could be distinctly traced. No mounds
or passage-ways can now be traced. A canal to convey water
to a saw and grist mill occupies the place of the mound marked
m. The stones used in these walls were obtained on the ground,
and were of such size as one man could lift ; they were laid as
well as our good walls for fences in the north, and very regu
lar ; they were about three feet in thickness and breast high
when first discovered. The stones have been used to fill in
the dam now adjoining. There were no embankments in the
interior. The distance between the outer and inner wall was
about sixty feet ; the distance from the north to the south wall
was about 250 feet, and from the west wall to the river about
220 feet. There were two other walls extending south to Little
Bay. The general elevation of the ground was about ten feet
above, and gently sloping to the river bank, which is about five
feet above the water of the river. The distance between Great
Bay and Little Bay is about 160 rods, with a gradual fall of
fifteen feet. Here was a great fishing-place for the Indians.'
Mr. Bamford states that he has heard his father and Mr. Gib
son say, that on their first acquaintance with this place, they
have seen three hundred bark canoes here at a time. This
may have been in consequence of the number of bays and lakes
near this place. Sanbornton was laid out and surveyed in

PENNSYLVANIA, OHIO, ETC. 149

1750 ; but Canterbury, adjoining the bay, was settled as early
as 1727.

" The remains of a fortification, apparently of similar con
struction to that above described, were some years since to be
seen on the bluffs east of the Merrimack River, in Concord, on
what was formerly known as Sugar-Ball Plain. The walls
could readily be traced for some distance, though crumbled
nearly to the ground, and overgrown with large trees."*

* " A mound 45 or 50 feet in diameter is situated on the northern
shore of Ossipee Lake, New Hampshire. It is ten feet high, and was
originally covered with timber. The earth is not like that of the mea
dow in which it stands, but of the adjacent plain. A slight excavation
was made in it a number of years ago, in the course of which three entire
skeletons were found, accompanied by two tomahawks and some coarse
pottery. On the surrounding meadow were to be seen, when the ground
was first cleared, the hills where the corn had anciently grown." — Hist,
and Mis. Coll. of N. H., vol. II., p. 47; New Hampshire Gazetteer, p. 207.

CHAPTER VIII.

GENERAL CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES.

THE fortifications of the savage or hunter tribes of North
America are uniformly represented to have been constructed
of rows of pickets, surrounding their villages, or inclosing posi
tions naturally strong and easy of defence. The celebrated
stronghold of the Narragansetts in Rhode Island, destroyed in
1676 by the New England colonists under Winthrop and
Church, was an elevation of five or six acres in extent, situated
in the centre of a swamp, and strongly defended by palisades.
It was of extraordinary size, and inclosed not far from six hun
dred lodges.

Of like character was the fort of the Pequots, on the Mystic
River, in Connecticut, destroyed by Captain Mason. Accord
ing to Hackluyt, the towns of the Indians on the St. Lawrence
were defended in a similar manner. The first voyagers describe
the aboriginal town of Hochelaga, now Montreal, as circular in
form, and surrounded by three lines of palisades. Through
these there was but a single entrance, well secured by stakes
and bars ; and upon the inside of the defence, were stages or
platforms, upon which were placed stones and other missiles^
ready for use, in case of attack. The town contained about
fifty lodges.— (Hackluyt, vol. III., p. 220.)

Charlevoix observes, that " the Indians of Canada are more
expert in erecting their fortifications than in building their
houses." He represents that their villages were surrounded by
double and frequently by triple rows of palisades, interwoven
with'branches of trees, and flanked by redoubts. — (Canada,
vol. II., p. 128.) Cham plain also describes a number of forti
fied works on the St. Lawrence, above Trois Rivieres, which

CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES. 151

" were composed of a number of posts set very close together."
He also speaks of " forts which were great inclosures, with tiers
joined together like pales," within which were the dwellings of
the Indians. — (Purchas, vol. IV., pp. 1612, 1644.) Says La
Hontan, " their villages were fortified with double palisades of
very hard wood, which were as thick as one's thigh, fifteen feet
high, with little squares about the middle of the courtines (cur
tains). — (Vol. II. } p. 6.) The Indians on the coasts of Virginia
and North Carolina are described as possessing corresponding
defences. " When they would be very safe," says Beverly,
'• they treble the pales." — (Hist. Virg., p. 1 49, See also Amidas
and Barlow in Pink., vol. XII., p. 567 ; Heriot, ib., p. 603 ;
Lafitau, vol. III., p. 228, etc. etc.)

Among the Floridian tribes, the custom of fortifying their
villages seems to have been more general than among the In
dians of a higher latitude. This may readily be accounted for
from the fact that they were more fixed in their habits, consi
derably devoted to agriculture, and less averse to labor than
those of the north. The chronicler of Soto's Expedition speaks
of their towns as defended by " strong works of the height of a
lance," composed of " great stakes driven deep in the ground,
with poles the bigness of one's arm placed crosswise, both inside
and out, and fastened with pins to knit the whole together.
Herrara, in his compiled account of the same expedition, has
the following confirmation. " The town of Mabila or Mavila
(Mobile) consisted of eighty houses seated in a plain, inclosed
by piles driven down, with timbers athwart, rammed with long
straw and earth between the hollow spaces, so that it looked
like a wall smoothed with a trowel ; and at every eighty paces
was a tower, where eight men could fight, with many loop-holes
and two gates. In the midst of the town was a large square." —
(Hist. America, vol. V., p. 324.) Du Pratz also gives a corre
sponding account of the defences of the Natchez and neighboring
tribes. " Their forts are built circularly, of two rows of large
logs of wood, the logs of the inner row being opposite to the

152

CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES.

jointings of those of the outer row. These logs are about fifteen
feet long, five feet of which are sunk in the earth. The outer

CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES. 153

logs are about two feet thick, the inner ones half as much. At
every forty paces along this wall, a circular tower juts out, and
at the entrance of the fort, which is always next the river, the
two ends of the wall pass beyond each other, leaving a side
opening. In the middle of the fort stands a tree, with the
branches lopped off within a short distance of the trunk, and
this serves as a watch-tower." — (Hist. Louisiana, p. 375.) The
following description and illustrative engraving, copied from
De Bry, no doubt convey a correct idea of the character of the
Floridian defences.

" The Indians build their towns in this wise. Having made
choice of a spot near a running stream, they level it off as even
as they can. They next draw a furrow of the size of the
intended town in the form of a circle, in which they plant large
round stakes, twice the height of a man, and set closely together.
At the place where the entrance is to be, the circle is somewhat
drawn in. after the fashion of a snail-shell, making the opening
so narrow as not to admit more than two at a time. The bed
of the stream is also turned into this entrance. At the head
of the entrance a . small round building is usually erected ;
within the passage is placed another. Each of them is pierced
with slits and holes for observation, and is handsomely finished
off after the manner of the country. In these guard -houses
are placed those sentinels who can scent the trail of enemies at
a great distance. As soon as their sense of smelling tells them
that some are near, they hasten out, and, having found them,
raise an alarm. The inhabitants, on hearing the shouting,
immediately fly to the defence of the town, armed with bows;
arrows, and clubs.

" In the middle of the town stands the king's palace, sunk
somewhat below the level of the ground, on account of the heat
of the sun. Around it are ranged the houses of the nobles, all
slightly covered with palm-branches; for they make use of
them only during nine months of the year, passing, as we have
said, the other three months in the woods. When they return,
7*

154 CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES.

they, take to their houses again ; unless, indeed, they have been
burned down in the mean time by their enemies, in which case
they build themselves new ones of similar materials. Such is
the magnificence of Indian palaces."

Among the Indians to the westward of the Mississippi, par
ticularly among the Mandans and kindred tribes, a somewhat
different system of defence prevailed. The serpentine courses of
the rivers, all of which have here high, steep banks, leave many
projecting points of land or elevated peninsulas, protected on
nearly all sides by the streams, and capable, with little artificial
aid, of being made effective for defensive purposes. Mr. Catlin
describes the principal village of the Mandans, while that
remarkable tribe existed, as protected upon three sides by the
river, and upon the fourth " by a strong picket, with an interior
ditch, three or four feet in depth." The picket was composed
of timbers a foot or more in diameter and eighteen feet high,
set firmly in the ground, at a sufficient distance from each other
to admit guns to be fired between them. The warriors stationed
themselves in the ditch during an attack, and were thus almost
completely protected from their assailants. These practices
seem, however, to be of comparatively late introduction. —
(N. A. Indians, vol. I, p. 81.)

Brackenridge ( Views of Louisiana, p. 242) mentions the
ruins of an Indian town upon the Missouri River, fifty miles
above the mouth of the Shienne. The spot was marked by
" great piles of buffalo bones and quantities of earthenware.
The village appeared to have been scattered around a kind of
citidel or fortification, inclosing from four to five acres, in an
oval form." The earth was thrown up about four feet, and a
few of the palisades were remaining. The Shienne River is
1300 miles above the mouth of the Missouri. Lewis and Clark
also mention a number of remains of Indian fortifications of
like character ; but it is to be observed that they distinguish
between them and the larger and more imposing ancient works
which fell under their notice in the same region. They describe
an abandoned village of the Riccarees, called Lahoocat, which

CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES. 155

was situated in the centre of Goodhope Island. It contained
seventeen lodges, surrounded by a circular wall, and is known to
have been occupied in 1797. — (Exp., p. 72.) They also men
tion the remains of a deserted village, erected by Petit Arc or
Little Bow, an Omahaw chief, on the banks of a small creek of
the same name, emptying into the Missouri. It was surrounded
by a wall of earth, about four feet high. — (Exp., p. 41.) A cir
cular work of earth, formerly inclosing a village of the Shiennes,
was noticed by these explorers, a short distance above the mouth
of the Shienne River. — (Exp., p. 80.) The ancient villages of
the Mandans, nine of which were observed in the same vicinity,
within a space of twenty miles, were indicated by the walls
which surrounded them, the fallen heaps of earth which cov
ered the huts, and by the scattered teeth and bones of men and
animals. — (Exp., p. 84.) Another defensive work, probably
designed for temporary protection, was observed by these gen
tlemen in the vicinity of the mouth of the Yellowstone. "It
was built upon the level bottom, in the form of a circle, fifty
feet in diameter, and was composed of logs lapping over each
other, about five feet high, and covered on the outside with
bark set upright. The entrance was guarded by a work on
each side of it, facing the river." These entrenchments, they
were informed, are frequently made by the Minaterees and
other Indians at war with the Shoshonees, when pursued by
their enemies on horseback. — (Exp., p. 622.) Lieut. Fremont
found similar constructions in the vicinity of the Arkansas.
A much more feasible method of protection, under such circum
stances, is mentioned by Pike. He states that the Sioux,
when in danger from their enemies in the plains, soon cover
themselves by digging holes with their knives, and throwing
up small breastworks. — (Exp., p. 19.) They are represented
as being able to bury themselves from sight, in an incredibly
short space of time.

The numerous traces upon the Missouri, of old villages occu
pying similar positions, and having evidently been defended in

156 CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES.

a like manner with those above described, place it beyond doubt
that this method of fortification was not of recent origin among
those Indians. Mr. Catlin mentions that there are several
ruined villages of the Mandans, Minaterees and Riccarees, on
the banks of the river, below the towns then occupied, which
have been abandoned since intercourse became established with
the whites.

Prince Maximilian notices a feature in the defences of the
Mandan village of Mih-tutta-hang-kush, which does not seem
to have been remarked by any other traveler. This village is
represented to have consisted of about sixty huts, surrounded
by palisades, forming a defence, at the angles of which were
"conical mounds, covered with a facing of wicker-work, and
having embrasures, completely commanding the- river and
plain." In another place, however, our author adds, that these
bastions were erected for the Indians by the whites. — ( Travels
in the Interior of North America, by Maximilian, Prince of
Weid.—w- 173, 243.)

It will thus be seen, from what has already been presented,
that, while the Indian tribes on the Atlantic coast and along
the Gulf of Mexico, with few exceptions, defended themselves
by simple stockades, the Indians to the west of the Mississippi
frequently added an embankment of earth, though in other re
spects observing a very great uniformity with those nations first
named. This difference may be accounted for, to a certain ex
tent, by the nature of the soil, which, at the west, is generally
readily excavated with the simplest tools.

Among the semi-civilized inhabitants of Mexico, Central
America, and Peru, similar methods of defence were practiced ;
but in the construction of their fortresses they displayed a degree
of superiority corresponding to that which, in most other re
spects, they sustained over their savage contemporaries. Cortez
found himself opposed, upon his first landing on the coast of
Tobasco, by the town of the same name, which, according to
De Solis, was fortified after the usual method, on the coast

CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES. 157

The defences consisted of a kind of wall, made of the trunks
of large trees, fixed in the ground after the manner of palisades,
but so placed that there was room for the Indians to discharge
their arrows between them. The work was round, without any
traverses or other defences, and at the closing of the circle the
extremity of one line covered the other, and formed a narrow,
winding street, in which there were two or three little castles
of wood which filled up the passage, and in which were posted
their sentinels. " This," continues Solis, " was a sufficient
fortress against the arms of the new world, when they were
happily ignorant of the arts of war and of those methods to
attack and defend, in which mankind has been instructed either
by malice or necessity." — (De Soils' Hist. Mexico, p. 54.)
This town, corresponding entirely with those described by the
followers of De Soto, in Florida, seems to have been rudely for
tified in comparison with others in the interior of the country,
and nearer the seat of Aztec civilization. Here the towns and
cities were surrounded not only by palisades, but also by ditches
and walls of earth and solid masonry. The skill with which
the city of Mexico was protected is amply attested by the
chronicler of Cortez' expedition, who also informs us that walls
were sometimes erected to guard the frontiers of provinces.
The great wall of Tlascalla furnishes, in its extent, a parallel
to some of the more imposing defensive structures of the other
hemisphere. It was erected, according to Cortez, by the " an
cient inhabitants " of that republic as a protection against their
enemies ; and Clavigero asserts that other portions of the fron
tier were defended in a similar manner. De Solis describes it
as " a great wall which ran across a valley from one mountain
to another, entirely stopping up the way ; a sumptuous and
strong piece of building, which showed the power and greatness
of the builders. The outside was of hewn stone, united with
mortar of extraordinary strength. It was twenty feet thick
and a fathom and a half high ; and on the top was a parapet
after the manner of our fortifications. The entrance was nar-

158 CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES.

row and winding, the wall in that part dividing, and making
two walls, which circularly crossed each other for the space of
ten paces." Clavigero states that it was six miles in length,
eight feet in height, besides the parapet, and eighteen feet in
thickness, composed of stone cemented with mortar. Works
also existed in Mexico which approached more nearly to the
character of the modern forts. They were, for the most part,
strong, natural positions, such as isolated eminences, or the
summits of steep and rugged mountains.

One of these, inclosing the ruins of many imposing temples
and edifices, is situated to the north of the city of Mexico, in
the department of Zacatecas, which is supposed to have been
formerly occupied by the Chichimecs and Otomies. It is now
known as the " Ruins of Quemada." The ruins are situated
upon the summit of a high hill or cerro, and are inclosed upon
the north, where the ground is sloping, by broad, double walls
of massive stones cemented with mortar. Upon the south are
rugged precipices, affording natural defences. The walls have
bastions at intervals, and are entered by four broad roads, or
causeways, which extend in different directions over the adjacent
plains.

The hill of Xochicalco is three hundred feet in height, and
a league in circumference, surrounded at the base by a deep
and wide ditch. "Whether designed as a temple or fortress, is
not apparent. It may have subserved both purposes ; for there
is ample evidence, in the records of the conquerors, that the
sacred grounds of the Aztecs were their places of last resort, in
the defence of which their valor was inflamed by religious zeal.
The summit of the hill of Xochicalco is attained by five spiral
terraces, faced with cemented stones and supported by bulwarks,
and is crowned by the ruins of edifices, which rank among the
most imposing remains of the continent. An ancient fortress,
which no doubt well illustrates the character of the ancient
Mexican defences, is figured and described by Du Paix. " It
occupies the summit of a steep, isolated rock, about a league

CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES. 159

west of Mitlan. This rock is accessible only from the eastern
side. The wall is of solid stone, twenty-one feet thick and
eighteen high, forming in its wide range, which is about a league
in extent, several salient and retiring angles, with curtains
interposed. On its assailable side, where is its principal en
trance, it is defended by double walls which mutually flank
each other. The first or most advanced forms an enceinte, or
elliptical rampart, upon which, at short intervals, there are
heaps of small round stones for slinging, and in the centre of
the crescent there is an oblique gate, to avoid the enfilade or
right line of arrows, darts and stones. The second wall, which
is joined at its extremities to that of the fortress, is of greater
elevation, and forms a sort of tenaille. It differs from the
other in having its sides or flanks more open. It has likewise
its rampart and heaps of stones. For greater security, batteries
were disposed in the Aztec system of defence, in front of the
fortification, consisting of loose round stones, about three feet
in diameter, placed high, and so balanced as to be easily pre
cipitated below. On the plain surface of the rock are various
ruins of square buildings, and edifices of considerable size,
which were probably the ancient barracks. In the point dia
metrically opposite the entrance, is a sally-port or postern, for
furnishing the fort with men and provisions, or to facilitate a
forced retreat."

Near the village of Molcaxac are the remains of an ancient
fortress, much resembling that here described. It occupies the
summit of a mountain, and consists of four concentric walls of
great strength and solidity. — (De Soils, Book II., p. 139;
Bradford's Am. Antq.,p. 104.)

Another fortress of similar character, is mentioned by
Clavigero as existing at Guatusco, twenty-five miles north of
Cordova. It consists of high walls of stone, and is only entered
. by high and narrow flights of steps.

Although the above examples may seem to convey a very
accurate idea of the nature of the defensive structures of the

160 CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES.

Mexicans, it is yet to be regretted that so brief and imperfect
accounts of them have been transmitted to us by the early
writers. While we are constantly assured of their existence,
their great extent and vast strength, we are left in the dark in
respect to their details.

More is known respecting the military works of Peru, and all
accounts concur in representing them as clearly resembling those
already described. According to Ulloa, a method of fortifica
tion existed, nearly allied to that practiced by the ancient Celts.
It consisted in digging three or four ranges of moats quite
around the tops of high and steep mountains, protecting them
on the inside by walls of earth or stone. These were called
pucuras ; and, in some of them, the outer circumvallation is
represented as having been upwards of three miles in extent.
In respect to their number, he asserts that one scarcely meets
with a mountain without them.* Some were composed of rough
stones without arrangement, others of adobes. The more irreg
ular of these were attributed to the Indians before they were
reduced by the Incas. La Yega describes the great fortress
of Cuzco as constructed of three immense cyclopean walls, built
rather of rocks than stones, surrounding a hill. Acosta meas
ured some of the stones, and found them thirty feet in length,
eighteen in breadth and six in thickness. The outer wall is
said to have been twelve hundred feet in compass. Through
the walls were gateways, communicating with the interior?
where, according to La Yega, were three strong towers, two of
which were square and one round ; the latter appropriated to
the use of the Incas, the former to the garrison. Under the
towers were subterranean passages of great extent, f It was
supplied with water from a fountain in the centre. This is the
fortress which so long resisted the attacks of the Spaniards.

* Ulloa, vol. I., p. 504; vol. II., p. 113.

f McCulloh, p. 272 ; Bradford, p. 169 ; Schneider, (Ulloa, Mem. Phttos.
II., p. 457) says they were vaulted, (ceintrees.}

CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES. 161

Similar works exist near the village of Banos, in Huamalies,
occupying the summits of two mountains, placed opposite to
each other on either side of the river. The sides of the moun
tains are divided into galleries, ranged one above the other, in
some places formed by artificial walls, and in others cut in the
solid rock.* On the road from Potosi to Tacua, are the ruins
of an ancient Peruvian city. Upon one side, it is protected by
a deep ravine, and on the other by a rampart, the stones com
posing which are dovetailed together in a very singular man
ner. Within the walls was a citadel or place of last resort, f
Ulloa mentions tfre ruins of a fortified palace of the Incas,
near Patasilca, one hundred and twenty miles from Lima.
" The ruins are of very great extent : the walls are of tempered
clay, and about six feet thick. The principal building stood
upon an eminence, but the walls were continued to the foot of
it, like regular circumvallations : the ascent wound round the
hill leaving many angles which probably served as outworks to
defend the place. It is called Fortalesa, and is supposed to
have been a frontier point, during the time of the Incas."J

There are also evidences that, on the frontiers of certain por
tions of Peru, were constructed walls similar in design to that
of Tlascalla. Such a one is said to cross the valley of Guarmey.$
Analogous works exist in Chili. ||

The fortifications of Central America are very much of the
same character with those already described. Juarros gives an
account of one of these situated upon the river Socoleo. " The
approach, as usual to such places, was by a single entrance, and
that so narrow as scarcely to permit a horseman to pass it.
From the entrance there ran on the right hand a parapet raised
on the berme of the fosse, extending along nearly the whole of

* Mercuric, Peruano, vol. V., p. 259 ; Stevenson, vol. II., p. 100.

f Andrews' Travels in S. A., vol. II., p. 161.

J Ulloa, vol. II., p. 27; Stevenson, vol. II., p. 23.

§ Ruschenberger, p. 361.

|| Frezier, p. 262; Molina, vol. II., pp. 10, 68.

162 CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES.

that side ; several vestiges of the counterscarp and curtain of
the walls still remain, besides parts of other works, the use of
which cannot now be easily discovered. In the court-yard there
stood some large columns upon which were placed quantities of
pine-wood, that being set on fire, gave light at night to the sur
rounding neighborhood. The citadel of this great fortification
was in the form of a square graduated pyramid, rising twelve
or fourteen yards from the base to the platform on the top,
which was sufficient to admit of ten soldiers upon a side, etc.
Every part of this fortress was constructed of hewn stones of
great size ; one of which being displaced measured three yards
in length by one in breadth."*

The ruins of Uxmal in Yucatan, described by Mr. Stephens,
are represented to be inclosed by a wall of loose stones, f It
was not, however, completely traced by that gentleman. In
closing the ruins of Tuloom he found a well -constructed wall of
regular outline.

It forms three sides of a parallelogram, the fourth side to
ward the sea, being bounded by a precipitous cliff. " It is of
rude construction, and composed of rough, flat stones laid upon
each other without mortar or cement of any kind, and varies
from eight to thirteen feet in thickness. The south side has
two gateways, each about five feet wide. At the distance of
six hundred and fifty feet, the wall turns at right angles and
runs parallel to the sea. At the angle, elevated so as to give
a commanding view, is a watch-tower, twelve feet square, which
has two doorways. The interior is plain, and against the back
wall is a small altar, at which the guard might offer up prayers
for the preservation of the city. The west line parallel with
the sea, has a single gateway ; at the angle is another watch-
tower, like that before described, and the wall then runs straight
to the sea. The whole circuit is 2800 feet."|

* Juarros' Hist. Guat., p. 462.

f Stephens' Yucatan, vol. I., pp. 165, 230.

| Stephens' Yucatan, vol. II., p. 396.

CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES. 163

The remarkable structures within this work, seem to be of a
religious origin, suggesting the probability that it was designed
as a sacred inclosure. It is not impossible that, as in the case
of some of the works of the Aztecs, it was the citadel of the
surrounding population, within which, in times of danger, they
sought the protection and assistance of their gods. The forti
fied hill in the vicinity of Grenville, Ohio, has a small sacred
inclosure within its walls. May it not furnish a rude type of
the more imposing work above described, and denote a similar
practice ?*

* " Ancient Monuments of Mississippi Valley," Plate IX.

CHAPTER IX.

STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL STONE CIRCLES.

WE have noticed, on a preceding page, the fact that occasional
large heaps of stone, the work of the aborigines, are to be found
in the State of New York. Particular reference was made to
one in Scoharie county, which is described more in detail in
Howe's Gazetteer of New York, as follows :

" Between Scoharie creek and Caughnawaga was an Indian
trail, and near it, in the north bounds of Scoharie county, has
been seen, from time immemorial, a large pile of stones, which
has given the name of c stone heap patent ' to the tract on
which it occurs, as may be seen from ancient deeds. Indian
tradition says that a Mohawk murdered his brother on this spot,
and that this heap was erected to commemorate the event.
Every individual who passed that way added a stone to the
pile, in propitiation of the spirit of the victim."*

Dwight, in his travels, mentions a heap of stones of this de
scription, which was raised over the body of a warrior killed by
accident, on the old Indian trail between Hartford and Farm-
ington, the seat of the Tunxis Indians, in Connecticut. Rude
heaps of stone of similar character are of frequent occurrence
throughout the west. A very remarkable one occurs upon the
dividing ridge between Indian and Crooked creeks, about ten
miles south-west of Chilicothe, Ohio. It is immediately by
the side of the old Indian trail which led from the Shawanoe
towns, in the vicinity of Chilicothe, to the mouth of the Scioto
River ; and consists of a simple heap of stones, rectangular in

* Howe's Gaz. of New York, p. 278.

STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC. 165

form, and measuring one hundred and six feet in length by
sixty in width, and between three and four in height. The
stones are of all sizes, from those not larger than a man's head,
to those which can hardly be lifted. They are such as are
found in great abundance on the hill slopes — the fragments or
debris of the outcropping sandstone layers. Some are water-
worn, showing that they were brought up from the creek, near
ly half a mile distant : and although they were disposed with
no regularity in respect to each other, the heap was originally
quite symmetrical in outline. The stones have been thrown
out from the centre, and an excavation of considerable depth
made in the earth beneath, but without results. The heap is
situated upon the highest point of land traversed by the Indian
trail : upon the water shed, or dividing ridge between the
streams which flow into Brush creek upon the one side and the
Scioto River on the other.

Another heap of stones of like character, but somewhat less
in size, is situated upon the top of a high, narrow hill overlook
ing the small valley of Salt creek, near Tarlton, Pickaway
county, Ohio. It is remarkable as having large numbers of
crumbling human bones, to say nothing of living black snakes
intermingled, apparently without order, with the stones. A
very extensive prospect is had from this point. Upon the slope
of a lower hill near by, appears to have been formerly an Indian
village. Many rude relics are uncovered on the spot, by the
plough.

Smaller, and very irregular heaps are frequent among the
hills. These do not generally embrace more than a couple
cart-loads of stone, and almost invariably cover a skeleton.
Occasionally the amount of stones is much greater. Rude
implements are sometimes found with the skeletons. A num
ber of such graves have been observed near Sinking Springs,
Highland county, Ohio ; also in Adams county in the same
State, and in Greenup county, Kentucky, at a point nearly op
posite the town of Portsmouth on the Ohio.

166 STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC.

A stone heap, somewhat resembling those here described,
though considerably less in size, is situated on the Wateree
River, in South Carolina, near the mouth of Beaver creek, a
few miles above the town of Camden. It is thus described in
a MS. letter from Dr. Win. Blanding, late of Camden, ad
dressed to Dr. S. Gr. Morton, of Philadelphia :

" The land here rises for the distance of one mile, and forms
a long hill from north to south. On the north point stands what
is called the ' Indian Grave.' It is composed of many tons of
small round stones, from one to four and five pounds weight.
The pile is thirty feet long from east to west, twelve feet broad,
and five feet high, so situated as to command an extensive view
of the adjacent country, as far as ' Rocky Mount,' a distance
of twenty miles above, and of the river for more than three
miles, even at its lowest stages."

A large stone heap was observed, a number of years since, on
a prairie, in one of the central counties of Tennessee. " Upon
removing the stones, near the centre of the pile, was found a
stone box, six feet long and three broad, formed by joining
with care the edges of flat stones. Within it was found the
decayed skeleton of a. man. No weapons or other relics ac
companied the skeleton."

The smaller stone heaps of the West seem to have been con
nected with some system of burial, and were perhaps designed
to protect the bodies of those who casually met their death
among the hills, or in some rencounter with an enemy, from
the attacks of wild animals, as well as to point out their places
of sepulture.* It is still customary among some of the Indian

* " To perpetuate the memory of any remarkable warriors killed in the
woods, I must here observe that every Indian traveler, as he passes that
way, throws a stone on the place, according as he likes or dislikes the
occasion or manner of death of the deceased. In the woods we often
see innumerable heaps of small stones in these places, where, according
to tradition, some of their distinguished people were either killed or
buried, till the bones could be gathered ; then they add Pelion on Ossa,

STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC. 167

tribes to carefully envelope the bodies of their dead, and place
them in trees, or on scaffoldings, for the same purpose.

Occasionally, after interment in the earth, stakes are driven
around the graves for the sake of protection. Whether the
large heap first described was raised over the body of some
distinguished savage, or as a simple mark or monument upon
the Shawanoe trail, it is difficult to determine. The absence
of human remains would seem to favor the latter conclusion.
However this may be, there is certainly nothing very remark
able in the existence of these monuments. The superstitions
of the Indians exhibited themselves in a thousand forms. A
spot remarkable in any respect, seldom failed to arouse their
superstitions, or attract their reverence, and to become in time
a great " medicine," or mystery. According to Acosta, the
Peruvians had a superstitious practice of casting a stone as an

still increasing each heap, as a lasting monument and honor to them,
and an incentive to great actions." — Adair's History of the American In
dians, p. 184.

" At, or soon after burial, the relations of the deceased sometimes
cover the grave with stones, and, for years after, occasionally resort to
it, and mourn over, or recount the merits and virtues of the silent ten
ant." — Hunter's Narrative, p. 309.

" They have other sorts of tombs ; as when ah Indian is slain, in that
very place they make a heap of stones, (or sticks, when stones are not
to be found :) to this memorial, every Indian that passes by, adds a
stone, to augment the heap in respect to the deceased hero." — Lawson's
Carolina, (1709,) p. 22.

LONG describes an Indian burial-place near Piqua, Ohio, where the
dead were placed upon the bare limestone rocks, and covered over with
slabs of stone. No order was displayed in the arrangement of the
graves. A cemetery of like character, in which each grave is marked
by a heap of stones, is said to exist in Westmoreland county, Pennsyl
vania.

The Bheels of the mountain district of India still raise cairns, or rude
piles of stones, over the bodies of their chiefs, the tops of which, at par
ticular periods, is covered with oil, red lead and vermillion.— Cokman's
Hind. Myth., p. 271.

168 STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC.

offering, upon any remarkable spot, at the crossings of paths,
and on the tops of hills or mountains. " It is therefore," ob
serves our authority, " that we find by the highways, great
heaps of stones offered, and such other things."* So, too, an
early writer on the Housatonic Indians observes : " There is a
large heap of stones, I suppose ten cart-loads, in the way to
W^anhktukook. which the Indians have thrown together as they
passed by the place : for it used to be their custom, every time
one passed by, to throw a stone upon it : but what was the end
thereof they cannot tell, only that their fathers used to do it,
and they do it because it was the custom of their fathers.
Some suppose it was designed as an expression of their grati
tude to the Supreme Being, that he preserved them to see the
place again."f The " Elk-horn pyramid," on the upper Mis
souri, is regarded with deep reverence, and no hunter passes it
without adding another horn to its proportions. This accumu
lation has been going on for a long period, and the pile is now
reported to be not far from fifteen feet high, and of correspond
ing lateral proportions. It is composed entirely of elk-horns,
many of which are to be found upon the adjacent prairies. An
instance of this practice of accumulating stones and other ma
terials, is mentioned by Mr. Schoolcraft, in which the offerings
consisted of sticks and twigs. :f It is highly probable that most
of the great heaps of stone scattered over the country, owe
their origin to this practice. It is further possible that some
of them may have originated in a practice mentioned by Bev
erly, who states that the Indians sometimes signalized the
conclusion of peace, or some other memorable action, by bury
ing a tomahawk, and raising over it a heap of stones. § If such
was the fact, " burying the hatchet," was not a mere rhetorical
figure among the Indian orators.

* Acosta, in Purchas, vol. III., p. 1028.

t Hopkins' Memoirs of Housatonic Indians, p. 11.

^ Indian in his Wigwam, p. 78.

§ Hist. Virginia, p. 164.

STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC. 169

Customs, similar in all respects to those described as exist
ing among the Indians, prevailed among the ancient Celts, and
have hardly become extinct among the Highlanders of Scot
land. A cairn, or heap of stones, was the common monument
of the dead, and hence arose the saying, " I'll add a stane to
yer cairn" in acknowledgment of a service, or in token of re
gard. Two motives, however, appear to have existed for throw
ing a stone, in passing, to a cairn. In the one case, says
Logan, it arose from respect to the deceased, whose memory it
was wished to prolong by increasing the size of his funeral
mount. The soul of the departed was believed to be pleased
with this mark of attention. The other motive for throwing
stones to augment a cairn was, to mark with execration the
burial-place of a criminal ; a practice which, according to Dr.
Smith, was instituted by the Druids. " It is curious," con
tinues the above author, " that the same practice should result
from views so different ; yet the fact is so, and the author has
often, in the days of his youth, passed the grave of a suicide,
on which, according to custom, he never failed to fling a stone."

At the death of Absalom, we are informed, in execration of
his memory, his body was cast in a pit, and a heap of stones
raised over him. " And they took Absalom, and cast him into
a great pit in the wood, and laid a very great heap of stones
upon him. and all Israel fled, every one to his tent." (2 Sam
uel xviii. 17.) A similar expression of popular hatred was vis
ited upon the avaricious Achan. " And all Israel stoned him
with stones, and they raised over him a great heap of stones."
(Joshua vii.)

We also learn from the Scriptures that the ancients erected
heaps of stone to mark spots signalized by some remarkable
event. Thus, Jacob raised a pillar of stone to commemorate
his wonderful dream. The spot where he parted with his
brother Esau, was marked in a like manner. The priests
caused a mound of stones to be erected where the Israelites
crossed the river Jordan, and Grilgal, their second encampment,
8

170 STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC.

was indicated by a heap of stones. Greek historians inform
us that a similar custom existed among that people, derived
from their ancestors Every memorable field of battle, through
out Greece, has its tumulus or polyandrum.

The ancients erected heaps of stones in the cross-ways, and
every traveler augmented it by adding a stone. These were
termed Thermula. The pilgrims of the Middle Ages did the
same, when they came within view of the end of their journeys ;
the piles which they erected were called Montjoyes. In the
passes of the Alps, rude heaps of stone are visible, marking
the spot of some deed of violence, or of some catastrophe.
Similar heaps were often used to designate boundaries ; and,
in the early explorations of the western parts of our own coun
try, were erected to mark the corners of surveys, or " loca
tions." The bounds between Jacob and Laban were thus
indicated. " And Laban said to Jacob, Behold this heap, and
behold this pillar, which I have cast up betwixt me and thee.
This heap be witness and this pillar be witness that I will not
pass over this heap to thee, and thou shalt not pass over this
heap and this pillar unto me, for harm." ( Genesis xxxi. 51, 52.)

We have an instance, mentioned by Lieut. Emory, in which
an erect stone was raised by some of the Indians of Northern
Mexico in commemoration of a treaty or compact. He says,
" At this point, (on the plains bordering the Moro River, New
Mexico,) we were attracted to the left by an object which we
supposed to be an Indian ; but on corning up to it, we found it
to be a sandstone block standing on end, surmounted by ano
ther shorter block. A mountain man, versed in these signs,
said it was in commemoration of a talk and friendly smoke
between some two or three tribes of Indians."*

The superstitions of the Indians extended to remarkable
objects in nature. A tree or stone of singular form seldom
failed to command their reverence. A stone which, from the

* Military Keconnoissance from U. S. to California, p. 24.

STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC.

171

action of natural causes, has assumed the general form of a
man or an animal, is especially an object of regard ; and the
fancied resemblance is often heightened by artificial means, as
by daubs of paint, indicating the eyes, mouth and other fea
tures. Mr. Schoolcraft has presented the public with sketches
of a number of these rude idols, all of which were found to the

FIG. 35.

northwest of the Great Lakes. Number 1 in the cut was
brought to the Indian Office at Mackinaw in 1839 : number 2
was found on Thunder Bay Island in Lake Huron in 1820,
where it had been set up under a tree. The island is small
and barren, and in its solitary, desolate aspect furnished a
place eminently appropriate, according to the Indian supersti
tion, for the residence of a Manitou or spirit. Number 3 was
found by Mr. Schoolcraft
about one thousand miles
above the Falls of St. An
thony, on the Mississippi.
It had been set up in a
shadowy nook, and was al
most entirely concealed by
shrubbery.* Figure 36, No.
1, was found in East Hart
ford, Connecticut, and depo- FIG. 36.

* Indian in his Wigwam, p. 292.

172 STONE HEAPS — STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC.

sited in the Museum of Yale College in 1788. It is thirty-one
inches high and seventeen wide ; the material is white granite.
It is said the Indians placed their dead before it previous to
burial, and afterward returned and danced around it.* Number
2 was found at the base of a mound in South Carolina, and is
now in the possession of Dr. S. Gr. Morton, of Philadelphia.
It is small, not more than six inches in height, and has evi
dently undergone some artificial modification.

Single erect stones, or a group of them, of large size, in iso
lated situations were also venerated. They are sometimes
covered with rude figures, and sacrifices made at their base.
Lewis and Clark, Prince Maximilian, and other travelers men
tion some of these, which in size and general disposition closely
resemble the Celtic cromlech.^ Catlin remarked a singular
group of five large boulders, at the Coteau des Prairies, which
were regarded with the utmost veneration by the Indians.
None venture to approach nearer than three or four rods, and
sacrifices are made in humble attitude, by throwing tobacco
toward them from a distance.^ It is well known that among
the nations of the East, a plain, unwrought stone, placed in the
ground, was an emblem of the generative or procreative powers
of nature. In India such stones are very abundant, and are
denominated Linghams ; and in Central America the same
symbol was extensively adopted. It is not improbable that
the erection of an obelisk of wood in the centre of the conse
crated areas of the Creeks, as described by Bartram, on page
121 of "Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," had
its origin in the primitive practice of erecting these symbolical
stones ; which in India, as also in Central America, almost
invariably occupy the centres of the sacred inclosures. Stones
arranged in a circle, around a central larger one, or amid

* Trans. Am. Acad. Arts and Sciences, vol. III., p. 192.
f Lewis and Clark, pp. 79, 83 ; Prince Maximilian's Travels, pp. 381,
417.
J N. A. Indians, vol. II., p. 202.

STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC. 173

several disposed in a peculiar manner, was a very primitive
form of the solar temple. The remains of these temples, not
withstanding their rudeness, constitute some of the most im
posing and interesting monuments of the Old World. If we
may credit Beverly, the Indians of Virginia not only erected
sacred stones, but had sacred inclosures, corresponding very
nearly with the ancient stone circles. He says : " The Indians
have posts fixed around their Quioccasan (temple of the idol),
which have men's faces carved upon them, and are painted.
They are likewise set up around some of their other celebrated
places, and make a circle for them to dance about in, on certain
solemn occasions. They very often set up pyramidal stones
and pillars, which they color with puccoon and other sorts of
paint, and which they adorn with peak, roenoke, etc. To these
they pay all outward signs of worship and devotion, not as to
God, but as they are hieroglyphics of the permanency and im
mutability of the Deity : because these, of all sublunary bodies,
are the least subject to decay or change ; they also, for the
same reason, keep baskets of stones in their cabins."*

Besides the rough, upright and wrought stones, constituting
inclosures, or occupying the areas of sacred structures, in Cen
tral America and Yucatan, accounts of which are given by Mr.
Stephens, we have the intelligence of the recent discovery of
monuments, in New Grenada, (South America,) which exhibit
a still closer relationship to the primitive stone circles and
other analogous structures of the other continent. The sub
joined account is given in a letter from Signer Yelez, dated
Bogota, December, 1846:

" In traversing, at different times, the province of Tunja,
with the sole purpose of examining the country, I acquired
some vague information respecting the presumed existence, in
the province of Leiva, of some ruins belonging to a temple or
a palace of the times of the ancient Indians. As the account

* Hist. Virginia, p. 184.

174

STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC.

varied each time that I attempted to inform myself by inqui
ries, as to the existence of remains of buildings anterior to the
conquest, and as no one affirmed that he had seen them himself,
I began to doubt the truth of the report. Nevertheless, as the
subject was one that interested me exceedingly, I undertook a
journey, in the month of June, 1846, in spite of the time and
trouble it would necessarily cost me, in order to put an end to
my uncertainty. After traversing the province of Leiva in
different directions, without meeting with the object I was in
search of, and after advancing as far as the neighborhood of
Moniquira, by following the route from Gachantiva to this
place, across a beautiful gently sloping plain under cultivation,
I discovered a large stone, which, when seen some distance off,
did not at first appear as if wrought by the hand of man. On
approaching it, I found it was a sort of column, 4£ varas in
length by 3£ in diameter. It seemed to me that such stones,
although rudely wrought, must have served as columns. On
examining the locality, I found, scattered here and there, other
stones similar to the first, and at last, 13 stones of the largest
size, ranged as in a circle about 50 varas in circumference. It
appeared to me that they must have proceeded from some tem
ple or palace, extending back to a remote period. Some of
these columns have a flattened shape like a fish; each has
notches at its extremities, which show clearly what means were
employed for making fast to them, and drawing them from the
quarry to the site which they now occupy.

;' But now, when I began to despair of meeting with the ru
ins of an edifice, which was the main object of my journey, some
Indians from a hut pointed out to me a spot some 400 varas
distant from the thirteen last-mentioned columns. I imme
diately proceeded thither, and great indeed was my joy at be
holding ruins ! I found cylindrical columns, exceedingly well
wrought, fixed in the ground, and occupying a surface 45 varas
long by 22 broad. These ruins extend, in the direction of
their length, from east to west ; some arranged in a straight

STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC. 175

line running in the same direction, with this peculiarity, that
the columns are so near together that their distance from each
other does not exceed half a vara. Their circumference also is
not over half a vara (sic) ; as to their length, it could not be
determined, these remains being so much damaged, that the
highest of them is not more than !•£ vara above ground; others
are scarcely visible, the ranges to which they belong being in
terrupted. The diameter of these columns is precisely alike ;
they resemble each other exactly, and are so well turned into a
cylindrical shape, that they seemed to me of better workman
ship than those now made use of at Bogota ; they form, by their
lightness and elegance, a striking contrast with the thirteen
enormous fragments mentioned above.

" It is impossible to affirm that the edifice in question was
only 45 varas long and 22 broad, because, in this space, the
columns touch each other. Over the whole extent of the place,
which covers a considerable surface, there are scattered numer
ous fragments of columns, as also of other stones which appear
to have been wrought on one of their faces. At a distance of
100 varas, I also found a spot covered with brambles and a
considerable number of stones, which, from a cursory examina
tion, I concluded to have been wrought. The columns which
remain sunk in the ground, are about twenty-nine in number.

" In all that I saw, I observed no trace of mortar, lime, or
any other cement. By taking up some of these columns, some
may, perhaps, be found.

" The examination of these vestiges made a deep impression
upon me, and I became convinced that the territory which con
tains them, and which is about two miles in extent, must have
been occupied by a large city — and, as I conclude, by a nation
much more ancient than the Muyscas.

" The ignorance which has always reigned in the province of
Tunja, explains the little attention shown to monuments so in
teresting, and so worthy of being studied. The inhabitants of
the country have alone been acquainted with them up to the

176 STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC.

present time ; and although not comparable in importance and
grandeur to those which have been discovered in Guatemala
and Yucatan, they nevertheless attest the existence of ancient
populations already far advanced in civilization."

Monuments analogous to those here described, are found on
the shores of Lake Titicaca, in Peru. Their origin is lost in
obscurity, and they are supposed, by M. De Orbigny, who has
carefully investigated, and given the world drawings of them
to have been the work of a race anterior to the Incas, denoting,
perhaps, a more advanced civilization than the monuments of
Palenque. They have been described by a number of the early
writers, commencing with Pedro de Ceica, one of the followers
of Pizarro. M. De Orbigny speaks of them as follows : u These
monuments consist of a mound raised nearly a hundred feet,
surrounded with pillars — of temples from six to twelve hundred
feet in length, opening precisely toward the east, and adorned
with colossal angular columns — of porticoes of a single stone,
covered with reliefs of skillful execution, though of rude design,
displaying symbolical representations of the sun, and the condor
his messenger — of basaltic statues loaded with bas-reliefs, in
which the design of the carved head is half Egyptian — and
lastly, of the interior of a palace formed of enormous blocks of
rock completely hewn, whose dimensions are often twenty-one
feet in length, twelve in breadth, and six in thickness. In the
temples and palaces, the portals are not inclined as among those
of the Incas, but perpendicular ; and their vast dimensions,
and the imposing masses of which they are composed, surpass
in beauty and grandeur all that were afterward built by the
sovereigns of Cuzco."*

* L'Home Americain, torn. I., p. 323.

CHAPTER X.

COMPARISON OF THE DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF THE AMERI
CAN ABORIGINES, WITH THOSE OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDERS,
CELTS, ETC.

THE resemblances which the defensive works of the mound-
builders, as well as of the later and existing Indian tribes, bear
to those of many other rude nations, in various parts of the
world, are no less striking than interesting. These resem
blances have, however, had the effect of misleading superficial
investigators, or those who have only paid incidental attention
to these subjects. They have hastily inferred that, because
certain monuments and aboriginal relics of the United States,
such as entrenched hills, tumuli, and instruments and orna
ments of stone and copper, sustain analogies, in some instances
almost amounting to identities, with those occurring in the
British Islands and on the steppes of Russia, that relations
must necessarily have existed between the builders, or that
they had a common origin. These resemblances are, never
theless, the inevitable results of similar conditions ; and the
ancient Celts and Scythians, the American Indians, and the
natives of Australia, built their hill-forts, and fashioned their
flint arrow-points and stone axes in like manner, because they
thus accomplished common objects, in the simplest and most
obvious mode. Human development must be, if not in pre
cisely the same channels, in the same direction, and must pass
through the same stages. We cannot be surprised, therefore,
that the earlier, as in fact the later monuments of every people,
exhibit resemblances more or less striking. What is thus true
8*

178 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE

physically, or rather monumentally, is not less so in respect to
intellectual and moral development. And it is not to be
denied that the want of a sufficient allowance for natural and
inevitable coincidences, has led to many errors in tracing the
origin and affinities of nations.

We find not only in the British islands, but also in the
islands of the Pacific ocean, the almost exact counterparts of
the defensive structures of our own country. " The places of
defence of the Sandwich Islanders," says Ellis, " were rocky
fortresses improved by art, — narrow defiles or valleys, shel
tered by projecting eminences, — passes among the mountains,
difficult of access, yet allowing their inmates a secure and
extensive range, and an unobstructed passage to some stream
or spring. The celebrated Pare (fortress), in Atehuru, was
of this kind ; the mouth of the valley in which it was situated
was built up with a stone wall, and those who fled thither for
shelter were usually able to repel their assailants.

" Several of these places are very extensive ; that at Maeva,
in Huahine, near Mouna Tabui, is probably the best in the
islands. It is a square of about half a mile on each side, and
incloses many acres of ground well stocked with bread-fruit,
containing several springs, and having within its precincts the
principal temple of their tutelar deity. The walls are of solid
stone-work, twelve feet in height. On the top of the walls,
which were even and well paved, and in some places ten or
twelve feet thick, the warriors kept watch and slept. Their
houses were built within, and it was considered sufficiently
large to contain the whole population. There were four prin
cipal openings in the wall, at regular distances from each other,
that at the west being called the King's road. They were
designed for ingress and egress ; and during a siege, were built
up with loose stones, when it was considered &pari haabuea, an
impregnable fortress."— (Ellis1 Polynesian Researches, vol. I,
pp. 313, 314.)

The New Zealanders were not deficient in defensive skill.

DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF THE ABORIGINES. 179

Cook describes one of their strongholds or Heppahs at length.
His account, from the light which it affords as to the probable
manner in which the embankments of the western works were
surmounted, is subjoined entire :

" Near this place is a high point or peninsula projecting into
the river, and upon it are the remains of a fort, which they call
Eppah or Heppah. The best engineers could not have chosen
a situation better adapted to enable a small number to defend
themselves against a greater. The steepness of the cliffs ren
ders it wholly inaccessible from the water, which incloses it on
three sides ; and, to the land, it is fortified by a ditch, and a
bank raised on the inside. From the top of the bank to the
bottom of the ditch is twenty-two feet ; the ditch on the out
side is fourteen feet deep, and broad in proportion. The whole
seemed to be executed with great judgment, and there had
been a row of palisadoes, both on the top of the bank and along
the brink of the ditch on the outside ; those on the outside
had been driven very deep in the ground, and were inclined
towards the ditch so as to project over it ; but of these, the
thickest only were left, and upon them were evident marks
of fire, so that the place had probably been taken and de
stroyed by an enemy. If occasion should make it necessary
for a ship to winter or stay here, tents might be built in this
place, which is sufficiently spacious, and might easily be made
impregnable to the whole country." — (Cootts Second Voyage.)

The following additional particulars respecting the construc
tion and defence of the Heppah, by a later writer, and a
long resident of New Zealand, may serve to explain some of
the features of the aboriginal structures of our own country,
as also the probable manner in which they were defended.

" The fortifications of the natives are called Pa (fort), or E'
Pa (the fort). The spots chosen for these defences equally
evince sound judgment and habitual fear. The position ac
counted as best adapted for the purpose, is the summit of a
high hill, overlooking the surrounding country, or a mountain-

IbO

COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE

ous pass, having at its foot a river or running stream. Insular
retreats, distant a, few miles from the main, are also in especial
repute. The first procedure is to escarp the hill, so as to
render the ascent difficult and dangerous to a foe. Remains
of such works are to be found on every remarkable elevation
throughout the country. The further defences consist of two,
sometimes of three stout stockades of irregularly sized posts
and poles, varying from eight to thirty feet high from the
ground, into which they are thrust from three to seven feet.
The large posts are placed about a dozen feet apart, on which
are often carved ludicrous representations of men and animals ;
the spaces between the poles being filled with stakes, placed
close together, and bound firmly with horizontal pieces by a
creeper called toro-toro, which is tough and serviceable for a
long period. These strongholds have often proved superior to
any force the natives could bring against them. Few instances
have occurred of a Pa being taken by a brisk siege ; they have
failed only when cowardice, treachery, or improvidence have
aided the assailants. The stockades that inclose the fort are
within a few feet of each other, the outer gate or entrance
being much less than the inner opening, which, in time of war,
is entered by stepping-stones or small wooden posts like a turn
stile. The width is so contracted as scarcely to admit a large-
sized man, and between the fences a fosse is often cut, about
four feet in depth, sheltering the besieged while discharging
their missiles at the enemy. A more confused scene can
scarcely be conceived than a Pa during a siege. Some hun
dreds of low arched huts lie huddled together without regu
larity, streets, or paths ; among these, some native palaces raise
their roofs, and platforms (watas) built on trees for the preser
vation of food, and not for defensive purposes. Mounds are
often erected during a night by an enemy, to overlook the
interior of a fort, but they are of rare occurrence. The huts
near the tidpa or stockades are covered with earth and clay, to
render them secure to the inmates.

L_

DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF THE ABORIGINES. 181

" Some forts have been selected with consummate skill,
having the command of mountain gorges and narrow passes,
which might keep in check an army, if defended by a handful
of brave men. Various contrivances are invented to render
an approach to a fortification difficult of access Sometimes a
wooden post with notches for the feet affords the only means
of entering the fort. The Pa formed by the celebrated
E'Ongi, on a promontory jutting into Lake Moperri, was a
work of much merit, and added greatly to the consequence of
the self-taught engineer among his countrymen." — (Pollock's
New Zealand, vol. II., p. 26.)

It appears from these facts, that whatever estimate we may
place upon the capabilities of the Pacific and South Sea
Islanders in other respects, they are, in the language of a close
observer, " sufficiently advanced in civilization to construct
fortifications, and adapt them to the nature of the country in
which they are required." — (Laing's Polynesian Nations,
p. 108.)

The defensive works of Great Britain present a great variety
of forms, betraying different authors and different eras of con
struction. First of all, we have the works of the ancient
Celts, of irregular outline, and occupying strong natural posi
tions. These are succeeded by the fortified camps and other
defences of the Roman era, which are followed by the less
regular but more laborious works of the Belgic or Saxon
period.

During the earliest or Celtic period, a large proportion of
the barrows or tumuli scattered over the islands were erected ;
then, also, were built those mysterious circles and long avenues
which bear so striking a resemblance to the ancient structures
of our own country.

In the choice of their military positions, the ancient Britons
were governed by the same obvious rules which regulated the
mound-builders and the American Indians generally — ad
vantage in all cases being taken of the natural features of the

182

COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE

country. Their defences were usually erected on headlands, a
single wall being carried along the brow of the promontory,
while the level approaches were protected by a succession of
embankments and ditches, with occasional outworks or advance
posts. In some instances, steep, isolated hills were selected,
which were defended by a series of concentric embankments,
completely encircling the summit, — a method of construction,
as we have already seen, most frequently adopted by the
Peruvians.

The subjoined examples of ancient British fortresses, are
reduced from plans presented by Sir R C. Hoare.

FIG. 37.

Fig. 37 is situated in the county of Wilts, in the parish of
Colerne, near the road leading to Bath, and is known to
British antiquaries under the different titles of " North Wood "
and "Bury Wood Camp." "Its shape resembles that of a
heart, its pointed part resting in an angle between two streams.

DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF THE ABORIGINES, 183

Its area comprehends twenty-five acres, and it appears to have
had only one entrance toward the S. W., and that placed
exactly in the centre of the ramparts, which on this side are
double and rectilinear, the ground being level and most acces
sible on this side. On the N. "W. side, near the outward val
lum, but within the area of the camp, is a small earthen work
(a), single ditched, with an entrance to the west." — (Ancient
Wiltshire, vol. II., p. 104.)

'. M % 1-- ">} "lie j .'

FIG. 38.

Fig. 38 is situated in the same section of country with the
work just described, in the vicinity of Castle Combe, from
which it is named. " It is placed," says Hoare, " in a very
strange and picturesque situation, on the point of a very steep
hill, at whose base flows a rapid brook. It is very difficult of
access. The foundation of walls, a raised mound, and other
circumstances, induce me to attribute to it a Saxon origin; and
history reports its having been ravaged by the Danes. Its
area is eight and a half acres ; its form is rather oblong, but

184

COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE

wider toward the north, where the ground is most easy of
access, and where the adit into the camp has been placed. On
entering the work at this point, and proceeding toward the
southern extremity, where the ground is most precipitate, we
meet with three lines of ramparts, which intersect the area of
the camp, through two of which there is an opening ; the
eastern point was fortified by a raised mound." — (Ib. vol. II.,
p. 101.)

The singular vitrified forts of Scotland are suggested in this
connection. They appear to have been composed of loose stones,
which, by some process of vitrification, were made to present the
outward features of solid rocks, and have long perplexed anti
quarians. Some have attributed the vitrification to lightning,
others to accidental conflagration, while a few, more daring in
their speculations, have considered them the craters of ex
tinguished volcanos ! It has also been supposed that vast de
fences of wood once surrounded and surmounted the ramparts,
by the casual burning of which they were vitrified. There is,
however, every reason to believe, that this feature was the result
of design, although it is not easy to explain how it was produced.
Dr. Anderson, in a communication to the Society of Anti
quarians, in 1777, gives an account of a remarkable work of
this description, called Knockferral, in Ross-Shire. It is placed
on a high ridge of an oblong-shaped hill, very steep on three
sides, the walls being raised on the edge of a precipice all round,
except at the end admitting entrance into the area, the inclosed
space of nearly an acre being level : features readily recognizable
as also belonging to our American " Hill Forts." The ap
proaches to this work, as those of all others of the same descrip
tion, are strengthened by additional ramparts. " Those at the
entry," says our authority, " had extended, as I guessed, about
one hundred yards, and seemed to have consisted of cross-walls,
one behind the other, eight or ten in number; the ruins of
which are still plainly perceptible. Through each of these walls
there must have been a gate, so that the besiegers would have

DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF THE ABORIGINES.

185

been under the necessity of forcing each of these gates succes
sively, before they could carry the fort ; on the opposite end of

Fio. 39.

the hill, as the ground is considerably steeper, the outworks
seem not to have extended above twenty yards. Not far
from the farther end, was a well (a), now filled up. The wall
all around from the inside appears to be only a mound of rub-

186 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE

bish, consisting of loose stones : the vitrified wall is only to be
seen from the outside. Here the wall is covered with a crust
of about two feet in thickness, consisting of stones immersed
among vitrified matter ; some of the stones being half fused
themselves, — all of them having evidently suffered a considera
ble heat. The crust is of an equal thickness — of about two feet
— from the top to the bottom, so as to lie upon, and be sup
ported by, a backing of loose stones, forming in section an acute
angle. Within the crust of the vitrified matter is another
stratum of some thickness, parallel to the former, and consist
ing of loose stones, which have been scorched by the fire, but
present no marks of fusion."

It will be perceived that in position, mode of construction,
etc., these defences are indistinguishable from those of America.
They might be regarded, so far as their apparent features are
concerned, as the work of the same people ; yet they were con
structed by different races, separated from each other by ocean
wastes, and having little in common, except the possession of
those savage passions which have reddened every page of the
world's history with blood. They serve only further to illus
trate how naturally, and almost of necessity, men similarly cir
cumstanced hit upon common methods of meeting their wants,
and do not necessarily establish a common origin, nor a constant
or casual intercourse.

The Roman camps, vestiges of which are abundant through
out England and on the continent, also bear a close analogy to
a large class of the more regular Western earth-works, though
probably differing widely from them in the purposes for which
they were erected. " The Romans, from the earliest period,
paid particular attention to the security of their armies, by
choosing the best situations for their camps that the circum
stances would permit. They did not, however, trust to natural
strength alone — making it an invariable rule, wherever they
came, to inclose themselves within an entrenchment, consisting
of a rampart and ditch, strengthened with palisades. The forti-

DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF THE ABORIGINES. 187

fications were of a stronger or weaker character, according to
the nearness of an enemy, or the appearance of danger with
which they were threatened at the time. The form of the
Roman camp was square, contrary to that adopted by the
Greeks, who made theirs round, triangular, or of any other
shape, as best suited the nature of the ground." — (Roy's Mili
tary Antiquities of England, p. 41.) The angles of the Roman
camp were rounded, on a radius of about sixty feet, and there
were gateways midway upon each side ; sometimes, if the camps
were of large size, there were several passages upon each side.
These entrances were usually protected by exterior mounds, or
by overlapping walls, and occasionally outworks were erected.
The temporary camps, castra astiva, or those not designed for
constant occupation, had comparatively slight entrenchments,
the ditch being about six feet deep, and the parapet behind it
only about four feet high. The castra stativa were generally
much smaller than the temporary camps, and were strongly pro
tected. They were designed to contain garrisons, either to
guard a frontier or keep in awe newly conquered provinces.
Two ranges of them were erected shortly after the time of Agri-
cola, upon the frontiers of Caledonia, placed at short intervals
apart between the Clyde and Forth, and the Tyne and Solway,
nearly upon the line afterward occupied by the walls of Had
rian, Antoninus Pius, and Severus. The smaller sort of castra
stativa were termed castella, answering in a great degree to the
field-forts and redoubts made use of by modern armies.

The following cut, Fig. 40, is a plan of the camp of a single
Roman legion, according to Polybius, and is introduced more to
illustrate the different methods of protecting the gateways, than
to serve any other purpose. In some of the Western military
works, as may be seen by reference to the first volume of Smith
sonian Contributions, gateways occur similar to that at A. In
the more regular structures of the West, however, the mound
covering the gateway is invariably placed interior to the walls,
which circumstance, joined to others less equivocal, goes to sus-

188

COMPARATIVE VIEW, ETC.

tain the conclusion that such works were not constructed for
defence. The Roman camps had frequently two, sometimes

FIG. 40.

four or more, lines of embankment, with flanking defences, horn-
works, etc. The stone and earth circles of England are all
ascribed to the Celts; the rectangular works to the Romans.
Throughout the islands, no works occur in which the two figures
are combined, as in the Mississippi valley.

CHAPTER XI.

SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS IN MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, PERuJ
AND CHILI.

MOUNDS are found in Oregon ; but little is known concerning
them, except that they occur in the open prairies, are of small
size (seldom more than six or seven feet in height), and are
many thousands in number. Some of them were opened by
Com. Wilkes. but found to contain nothing beyond a pavement
of round stones. Their origin is involved in obscurity. Al
though professing to know nothing concerning them, the Indians
nevertheless regard them with some degree of veneration.
Their priests, or " medicine men," gather the wild herbs which
grow upon them, for use in their incantations and superstitious
rites. It seems unlikely that they were built by a people so
rude as those found in present occupation of the country. — (Ex
ploring Expedition, vol. IV., p. 313.)

It is not known that any mounds occur in Upper or indeed
in Lower California. A few are found in New Mexico, and in
the valley of the Gila ; but we are ignorant of their character
and contents. The aboriginal Mexicans often buried in the
pyramidal structures constituting their temples ; and it is pre
sumed, although we have no direct evidence of the fact, that
they sometimes erected tumuli over their dead. The plain
surrounding the great pyramids of Teotihuacan is covered with
mounds, chiefly of stone, and disposed with a great deal of reg
ularity; it is called Micoatl, or Path of the Dead* These

*Mr. Thompson, in his "Recollections of Mexico (pp. 138, 142),
expresses the opinion that what have been very generally supposed
to be sepulchral mounds around these pyramids, are not such in fact,

190 SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS IN MEXICO, ETC.

pyramids are, however, ascribed to the Toltecs, who preceded
the Aztecs in the possession of the valley of Anahuac ; and it
is reasonable to believe that the numerous tumuli which sur
round them, whatever their purposes, were built by the same
hands.

If the practice of erecting mounds over the dead prevailed at
all among the Mexicans, it must have been to a very limited
extent. This is inferred from the silence of all the ancient
authorities, who, although giving us very minute accounts of
their burial customs, say nothing concerning such structures.
It was usual to burn the dead, and the rite was performed with
many ceremonies.. In cases where simple inhumation was
practised, the body was placed in a sitting posture, in chambers
of stone or brick, accompanied by their ornaments and the
implements of their profession. Bernal Diaz mentions the
explorations of Figuero, an officer among the conquerors, who, in
the territory of the Zapoticas, employed himself " in discovering
the burial-places of the Caziques, and in opening their graves
for the sake of the golden ornaments which the inhabitants of
olden times were accustomed to bury with their chiefs. This
employment he prosecuted with so much vigor and success,
that he collected in this manner over 100.000 dollars worth of
gold." — (Lockharfs Diaz, vol. II., p. 322.) It will be observed
that Diaz speaks of these tombs as belonging to the people who
inhabited the country in the olden time — probably the Toltecs,
among which branch of the American family the practice of
mound-building seems to have been of universal prevalence.

Sepulchral mounds are abundant in many parts of Central
America. In the vicinity of the ruins of Ichmul, in Yucatan,
they are particularly numerous, covering the plain for miles in
every direction. Some of these are forty feet in height. Sev
eral have been opened and found to contain chambers, inclos-

but simply the ruins of the houses composing an ancient town. His
opinion, for reasons which the inquirer will find explained at large in
his book, is entitled to consideration.

SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS IN MEXICO, ETC. 191

ing skeletons, placed in a sitting position with small vessels of
pottery at their feet. — (Norman's Yucatan,}*. 146.) In Hon
duras, says Herrara, were many tombs of the inhabitants ;
;' some of which were large plain rooms, and others only like
great heaps of earth. In the territory of Zenu," continues this
author, " abundance of graves were found in a field near a tem
ple, so ancient that large trees were growing over them ; and
within them was an immense quantity of gold, besides what the
Indians took, and what still is lost underground. These
graves were very magnificent, adorned with broad stones and
vaults, in which the dead body was laid, and all their wealth,
jewels, and arms, women and servants alive, with good stores
of provisions and pitchers of their liquors, which denoted the
knowledge they had of the immortality of the soul. The dead
were buried sitting, clothed and well armed." — (Herrara^ vol.
IV., p. 221.)

Mr. Stephens excavated a sepulchral mound in the vicinity
of San Francisco, in Yucatan. It was a square stone structure,
with sides four feet high ; and the top was rounded over with
stones and earth. The interior was loose earth and stones, with
some layers of large flat stones, the whole very rough. After
digging six hours, he came to a flat stone of large size, beneath
which was a skeleton. The knees were bent against the stomach,
the arms doubled from the elbow, and the hands supporting the
neck or head. With this skeleton was found a large vase, the
mouth of which was covered with a flat stone. It was empty,
except some little, hard, black flakes at the bottom. Mr. Ste
phens conjectures that it may have contained some liquid, or
the heart of the skeleton. — (Trav. in Yucatan, vol. I., p. 277.)

In South America, and particularly in Peru, the custom of
erecting mounds over the dead was of general prevalence. The
sepulchral tumuli of Peru were called huacas or guacas. They
exhibit many features in common with the burial mounds of
the Mississippi valley, and establish that funeral customs, in
many respects similar to those practised by the race of the

192 SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS IN MEXICO, ETC.

mounds, prevailed among the ancient inhabitants of that coun
try. Their form is generally that of a simple cone ; sometimes
they are slightly elliptical, and occasionally rectangular. Their
usual height is said to be not far from forty to fifty feet, though
some are mentioned which are upwards of one hundred feet in
altitude. They are scattered in great profusion over the coun
try ; but, according to Ulloa, are " most abundant within the
jurisdiction of the town of Cayambe, where the plains are
covered with them, for the reason that formerly here was one
of the principal temples of the ancient inhabitants, which it was
supposed communicated a sacred character to the surrounding
country, which was therefore chosen for the burial-place of the
kings and caziques of Quito ; and in imitation of them, all the
chiefs of the villages were interred there. The remarkable
difference," continues this author, " in the magnitude of these
monuments, seems to indicate that the guacas were always suit
able to the character, dignity, or riches of the person interred,
as indeed the vassals under some of the most potent caziques
concurred in raising a mound over his body." — (Ulloa, vol.
I., p. 480.) It may be regarded as settled, that, as a general
thing, none but the bodies of deceased chieftains and other
persons of consequence were deposited in the huacas, and that
those of the common people were buried in simple graves.
Within the huacas, upon the original surface of the ground, are
found chambers constructed of stone, brick, or timber ; some
times there are several of them, with connecting galleries, in
which the dead were placed. The bodies are usually found
occupying a sitting posture. With them were placed a great vari
ety of articles, ornaments, and implements. Vast quantities of
pottery, of every variety of form and ornament ; articles of gold
and silver, comprising ear-rings, pendants, bracelets, and little
images of men and animals ; axes of hardened copper and of
stone, differing but slightly in shape from those in use at the
present day ; spear-heads and mirrors of obsidian (gallinazo
stone) ; cloth of cotton, of the wool of the lamas and of other

SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS IN MEXICO, ETC. 193

materials ; implements of palm-wood ; marine shells, and a
thousand articles of similar character. Vast numbers of these
tombs have been opened for the sake of the treasures they con
tain.*

In Chili, sepulchral mounds of earth and stone are of fre
quent occurrence. In them are found, besides the bones of the
dead, earthenware, axes, and vessels of stone, admirably worked,
and occasionally edged tools of hardened copper. Molina
describes, with considerable minuteness, the funeral ceremonies
of the Chilian Indians ; which, from the light they may throw
upon the customs of the mound-builders, are worthy of notice.
" As soon as one of their nation dies, his friends and relations
seat themselves on the ground round the body, and weep for a
long time ; they afterward expose it, donned in its best clothes,
upon a high bier, where it remains during the night, which they
pass near it, weeping, or in eating or drinking with those who
come to console them. This is called the black entertainment :
black being with them, as with us, the sign of mourning. The
following day, or within two or three days, they carry the corpse
to the burial-place of the family, which is usually situated on a
hill or in a wood. The corpse is preceded by two men at full
speed on horseback, and is followed by the relations, with loud
cries and lamentations, while a woman strews ashes on the track,
to prevent the soul from returning. On arriving at the place

* The amount of treasure found in some of the huacas is very great.
Stevenson states that in the year 1576, a huaca was opened in which
was found gold amounting to 46,810 golden ounces ; according to
Huinboldt, 5,000,000 francs. We are not surprised at the great value
of some of these deposites, in view of the almost incredible quantities
of gold and silver possessed by the ancient Peruvians. According to
Proctor (Peru in 1823-4), the excavation of the ancient tombs for their
contents is still carried on, though it seems that considerable quantities
of the precious metals are seldom found. Mr. Proctor mentions that
in some instances the spindles of the ancient inhabitants, with the cot
ton thread still perfect on them, have been found in the huacas.
9

194

SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS IN MEXICO, ETC.

of burial, the corpse is laid on the surface of the ground, sur
rounded, if a man, with his arms ; if a woman, with female im
plements, and with a great quantity of provisions, and with
vessels filled with chica and with wine, which, according to their
opinion, are necessary to subsist them during their passage to
another world. They sometimes even kill a horse and inter it
in the same ground. After these ceremonies, they take leave,
with many tears, of the deceased, wishing him a prosperous
journey, and cover the body with earth and stones in a pyra
midal form, upon which they pour a great quantity of chica" —
(Molina1 s Chili, vol. II., p. 82.)

The Esquimaux cover their dead with rude heaps of stone,
above which they pile the sledges and canoes of the deceased.
The bodies are usually closely wrapped in skins, and placed in
a sitting posture. — ( Capt. Lyorts Narrative, p. 68.) Kotze-
bue mentions a structure of stones which he designates as a
" round tower, four fathoms in height," at Kotzebue Sound.
It was probably a sepulchral monument of the savages. —
(Voyage, vol. I., p. 210.)

CHAPTER XII.

SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS AND MONUMENTS OF THE ANCIENT
WORLD.

" THE most enduring monuments of the primeval ages of
society," observes a learned archaeologist, " were those erected
in memory of the dead ; and it seems that the further we go
back into the history of mankind, the deeper we find man's
veneration for his departed brethren. The simplest, and also
the most durable, method of preserving the memory of the
departed, was by raising a barrow, or mound of stones, over
his remains ; and accordingly, we find instances of this mode
of interment in almost all countries of the globe." The
extent to which it prevailed in America, we have already
indicated ; and the coincidences in form and structure between
the sepulchral monuments of this continent and those of the
Old World, have been the subject of incidental remark.
These coincidences are, however, sufficiently remarkable to
merit further attention ; and it is believed a brief review of
the character of the primitive sepulchral monuments of the
other continent will serve greatly to illustrate and explain
those of our own country, at the same time that it establishes
the general prevalence of the custom of mound-burial in past
ages.

The earliest of human records distinctly refer to the prac
tice of erecting mounds of- earth or stone over the dead ; but
we find in the pyramids of Egypt — which may be regarded as
perfected tumuli — the evidence of its prevalence at a period
long anteceding the dawn of written history. In the deep
night of antiquity, step by step, had the rude heap of stones

196

SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS AND MONUMENTS

which filial regard first gathered over the dead, developed
itself, until in its massive proportions and solid strength it
emulated the mountains, and bade defiance to time. Homer
speaks frequently of the sepulchral tumuli of the heroic age
of early Greece, and gives many curious details relating to the
ceremonies of the interment. The description of the burial
of Patroclus is familiar to most readers ; it, however, conveys
so accurate and lively an idea of the practices common to
ancient burials, that we cannot do better, in illustration of our
subject, than to quote it here. It should be premised that the
Homeric heroes were burned before interment.

" They still abiding heaped the pile.
A hundred feet of breadth from side to side
They gave to it, and on the summit placed,
With sorrowing hearts, the body of the dead.
Many a fat sheep, with many an ox full-horned,
They flayed before the pile, busy their task
Administering ; and Peleus' son, the fat
Taking from every victim, overspread
Complete the body with it of his friend
Patroclus, and the flayed beasts heaped around.
Then, placing flagons on the pile, replete
With oil and honey, he inclined their mouths
Towards the bier, and slew and added next,
Deep groaning and in haste, four martial steeds.
Nine dogs the hero at his table fed ;
Of which beheading two, their carcasses
He added also. Last, twelve gallant sons
Of noble Trojans slaying (for his heart
Teemed with great vengeance), he applied the force
Of hungry flames that should devour the whole."

Iliad, Book XXIII., COWPER'S Version.

The sacrifices done, and the body consumed, the bones are
next collected and the tumulus heaped above.

" The Greeks obey ! Where yet the embers glow,
Wide o'er the pile the sable wine they throw,
And deep subsides the ashy heap below.

OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. 197

Next the white bones his sad companions place,

With tears collected, in the golden vase.

The sacred relics to the tent they bore ;

The urn a veil of linen covered o'er.

That done, they bid the sepulchre aspire,

And cast the deep foundations round the pyre ;

High in the midst they heap the swelling bed

Of rising earth, memorial of the dead." — Iliad, Book XXIII.

The Trojans are made to bury the body of Hector in the
same manner: during nine days they collect the wood and
raise the pile ; and when fire has completed its part of the
work, they also quench the fires with dark wine, and collect the
bones of the hero in a golden urn, which they cover with a rich
cloth, and place in a " hollow trench ;" above this they pile
large stones, and over all heap the tumulus.

The body of the dead was not always burned among the
Greeks ; on the contrary, burial both by inhumation and incre
mation was practised from the earliest times, though one prac
tice may have been more common than another at a particular
period. In Magna Grsecia, unburnt skeletons have been found,
and in tombs close by vases containing the ashes of the dead. —
( Tischiben and Bottiger.) Both skeletons and ashes have been
found in Greece itself. — (Stackelberg, die Grdber.der Hellenen.)
There are no certain accounts as to whether the body was
burned at the place of sepulture, or at a spot designated for
that purpose. At any rate, the remains were collected and
deposited in a cinerary made of clay or bronze. The coffins of
the unburned were sometimes of wood, but generally the work
of the potter, though in some cases of masonry or stone. The
tombs were usually in a spot designated for the purpose.
Sometimes they were placed in the person's own house. After
it was forbidden to bury in the city, it became common to
select a, certain quarter for burials. The favorite place of se
pulture was in the fields or by some frequented highway. The
tombs were the inviolate property of the family, so that no

198 SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS AND MONUMENTS

other person might bury therein. A variety of articles were
placed with the dead — vases, mirrors, ornaments, etc. In cases
of burning, they were placed on the pyre. Feasts and offerings
to the dead were customary. At stated times the tombs were
decked, and sometimes bloody sacrifices were made. In the
order of funeral ceremonies, it should be mentioned that the
first thing done was to insert a small coin (an obolus) in the
mouth of the dead, as a vav\ov for the ferryman of Hades. A
similar custom existed among the ancient Mexicans, who in
serted a gem of some kind in the lips of the deceased, which
was to serve as a heart in the next world.

The funeral customs of the Romans were nearly identical
with those practised by the Greeks. Their tombs were often
simple tumuli, and so denominated. Burial by inhumation
and by fire were common practices. In the tombs were placed
coins, urns, flasks for holding tears or perfumes, sepulchral
lamps, etc. Games were celebrated in honor of the dead, and
sacrifices and libations made on their tombs.

Among both Greeks and Romans, the expenditures at fu
nerals became so great, and the ambition to erect large and
costly monuments so general, that it was found necessary to
prescribe their dimensions, and check extravagance by law.

A pillar or upright stone, in ancient times a sacred emblem,
was usually placed upon the tumulus of the dead. Paris
wounded Diornedes from behind the pillar on the barrow of
Ilus. These pillars were called stelce. Alexander, when he
crossed the Hellespont, performed solemn games at the bar
rows of the Grecian heroes who fell before the walls of Troy,
and anointed with perfumes the stelce on their tops. They
were erected on the taphos of the Athenians who fell at Mara
thon, and on that of the Lacedaemonians who died at Thermo
pylae, and bore the names of the slain. The stelae were con
tinued when the barrows were no longer erected ; and the idea
of their sanctity is still retained in the monumental stones

OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. 199

which plead for safety, by professing to be sacred to the memory
of the person above whose grave they are erected.

Sometimes the arms or implements of the dead were sus
pended around the stela or crowned the barrow of the dead. A
spear was fixed on the tomb of the Trojan Hector ; and Mise-
nus, the . trumpeter of Hector, and pilot of the Trojan fleet
of ^Eneas, had reared upon his tomb the symbols of his
deeds.

" On it J5neas piously heaped
A mighty mound sepulchral. The oar, the trumpet,
Arms of the man, the airy summit crowned,
From him Misenus named. It still retains
That name, and holds it through the lapse of time."*

Mneid, IV., 232.

Even in the later periods of Grecian history, mounds are
occasionally raised over the illustrious dead. Plutarch says
that Alexander, on the death of Demaratus, " made a most
magnificent funeral for him, his whole army raising him a
monument of earth eighty cubits high and of vast circum
ference." Semiramis endeavored to eternize the memory of
Ninus her husband, by raising a high mound for his tomb.
The Scythians, whose tumuli are scattered in great abundance
over the plains of Russia, southern Siberia, and Tartary,
labored, says Herodotus, " to raise as high a monument of earth

* The practice here indicated was one of general prevalence, not only
in ancient but in more modern times, and alike among savage and
polished nations. The Indians around the Upper Mississippi, to this
day, place a pole above the graves of their dead, from which his arms
and ornaments are suspended ; so, too, do the Indians of Oregon ; who,
however, distrusting the veneration of their fellows, break holes in the
kettles, and bend the barrels of the guns which they place on the tombs.
The arms and crest of the titled dead are still graven on their monu
ments, and the unstrung lyre and broken sword indicate the graves of
the poet and the warrior. The stelae are still to be seen on the barrows
of the ancient Scythians and Scandinavians, though none are found
crowning the sepulchral mounds of America.

200 SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS AND MONUMENTS

for their dead as possible." This author has left us a remarka
ble description of their mode of interment, which is amply
confirmed by the exploration of their tombs. " The body of
the king, having been transported through the various pro
vinces of the kingdom, was brought at last to the Gerri, who
live in the remotest parts of Scythia, where the sepulchres are.
Here the corpse was placed upon a couch, encompassed on all
sides by spears fixed in the ground: upon the whole were
placed pieces of wood, covered with branches of willow. They
strangled one of the deceased's concubines, his groom, cook, and
most confidential servant, whose bodies they placed around the
dead ; they slew horses also, and deposited with him the first
fruits of all things, and the choicest of his effects, and finally
some golden goblets, for they possessed neither silver nor brass.
This done, they heaped the earth above with great care, and
endeavored to make as high a mound as possible." — (Melpomene,
LXXI. ) The richness of the Scythian barrows is extraordinary ;
and according to Strahlenberg, the local governors of Siberia
used formerly to authorize caravans or expeditions " to visit
and ransack the tombs," reserving to themselves a tenth of the
treasures recovered. — (Siberia, p. 366.) In the second volume
of the British Archasologia, is an account of the opening of one
of the large tumuli in southern Siberia. After removing the
superincumbent earth and stones, three -vaults, constructed of
unhewn stones and of rude workmanship, were discovered.
The central one was largest, and contained the remains of the
individual over whom the tumulus had been erected. It also
contained his sword, spear, bow, quiver, arrows, etc. In the
vault at his feet, were the skeleton and trappings of a horse ;
in the vault at his head, a female skeleton, supposed to be that
of his wife. The male skeleton reclined against the head of
the vault, on a sheet of pure gold, extending from head to foot,
and another of like dimensions was spread over it. It had
been wrapped in a rich mantle, studded with rubies and eme
ralds. The female skeleton was enveloped in like manner j a

OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. 201

golden chain of many links, set with rubies, went round her
neck, and there were bracelets of gold upon her arms. The
four sheets of gold weighed forty pounds.

In some instances, the bodies were burned before interment.
All of the Scythian barrows contain numerous relics of art, orna
ments of gold and silver and precious stones, weapons and
implements of war, domestic utensils, mirrors, images and
idols, vases of metal and pottery, grains of the millet kind, etc.,
etc. — (Strahlenberg, pp. 264, 268 ; RenncPs Herodotus, p. 110.)
These ancient tombs, which are called Bogri by the Rus
sians, are often plain mounds. Some were set round with
rough stones in a circle or square : others with hewn stones.
In the squares the corner-stone was usually higher and broader
than the others, and sometimes bore inscriptions. Occasion
ally, the barrow was surmounted with a stone, or stela.

In Rajast'han, the practice of burying the distinguished
dead under tumuli still exists. Previous to interment, the
body is burned, as is also the wife of the deceased, who in all
cases accompanies her lord. Monumental pillars are also
erected, rudely carved with emblematic figures. They are
placed in lines, irregular groups, and in circles, and are numer
ous in the vicinity of every large town. These tombs are
places of sacrifice, and to them the Rajpoot repairs at stated
intervals, to make offerings to the manes of his ancestors.—
(Tod's Rajasthan, vol. I., pp. 72, 75 )

A singular variety of tumular structures, maintaining a cer
tain resemblance to those of other portions of the globe, but
having many essentially peculiar features, is found in Sweden.
They are, for the chief part, circular : sometimes, however,
there is a square inclosure of upright stones, with a conical
barrow in the centre, which has its base surrounded with up
right stones ; midway between this and the summit, the cir
cumference is marked by a second ring of upright stones ; close
to the summit, a third belt encircles it, and the crest of the
barrow is crowned by a cromlech, or group of stones. Another

9*

202 SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS AND MONUMENTS

variety has a circle of upright stones around the base of a
carnedd, or stone mound. A third variety has a circular belt
of upright stones around a conical barrow, which is surmounted
by a single upright stone. In connection with these, is a re
markable variety of stone inclosures. Some consist of a simple
circle of upright stones ; two of which, placed opposite each
other, are larger and taller than the rest. Others are circular,
with a small avenue of approach of four stones on each side ;
others are large circles, with every sixth stone of larger size
than the others, and the two north and south, of still greater
dimensions ; others are triangular, with a large stone in the
centre, and another at each corner; others triangular, with
each side curving inward, but without the large stones in the
centre and corners ; others are square. The structures last
named are frequently surrounded by valla, and inclosures are
seen contiguous to and even forming part of tumuli. — (Sjoborg
Samlingarfor Nor dens Porndlskare, fyc., 2 vols. 4to., Stockholm,
1822 ; Zur Alterthumskunde des Nordens, Von J. J. A. Wbrsace,
Leipzig. 1847.)

Mr. Worsaae divides these barrows, according to the charac
ter of their contents, into three classes ;

FIRST. — Barrows of the Stone Age. — These contain unburned
corpses, inclosed in rude stone chambers ; the implements and
utensils found in them are of stone or flint.

SECOND. — Barrows of the Bronze Age. — Containing burned
human remains, deposited in vases or little stone chests : also,
arms and utensils of bronze or copper.

THIRD. — Barrows of the Iron Age. — Burned human remains :
arms and utensils of iron, etc. These barrows are often of
regular forms, triangular, square, oval, shipform, etc. ; generally
surrounded by upright stones, as above.

This classification differs somewhat from that usually adopted,
in which the "age of fire" and the "age of hills" distinguish
the earlier and later periods of Scandinavian monumental his
tory. Odin is said to have introduced the practice of burning,

OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. 203

'and also that of the wife sacrificing herself with her deceased
lord. — (Mallei's Northern Antiq., Chap. XII.) Among all the
rude nations of the north and west of Europe, for an indefinite
period before the dawn of civilization, burial customs, strictly
analogous to those already described, existed. The dead were
buried with or without burning, and with them were deposited
numerous relics of art, which, in the greater or less skill which
they exhibit, mark the eras of burial, and the gradual advance
of the builders. The Germans, says Tacitus, " added to the
funeral pile the arms of the deceased and his horse," and both
Caesar and Pomponius agree in saying that the inhabitants of
Belgium and Gaul buried or burned with the dead whatever
was valued by them in their lifetime.

The burial-mounds of the ancient Britons, both of the Celtic
and Saxon periods, evince similar practices on the part of
their builders. For obvious reasons, the mounds of the United
States have oftenest been compared to these ; and, upon the
narrow basis of certain coincidences in structure, a common
origin has been ascribed to both. This circumstance, in con
nection with others, justifies a more detailed notice of the
British barrows than would otherwise be required. They have
been systematically investigated by many learned and indefati
gable antiquarians, the result of whose inquiries, so far as they
relate to the modes of interment practised by the ancient
inhabitants, are compendiously presented by Sir R. C. Hoare,
in his splendid work, entitled " Ancient Wiltshire."

" Four distinct modes of interment were practised by the
ancient Britons : —

1. The body placed generally in a cist, with its legs bent up
toward the head, and frequently accompanied by daggers of
brass, drinking cups, &c.

2. The body extended at full length, accompanied by articles
of brass and iron, such as spear-heads, lances, swords, and the
umbos of shields.

3. Interment by incremation ; when the body of the de-

204 SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS AND MONUMENTS

ceased was consumed by fire, and the bones and ashes deposited
either on the floor of the barrow, or in a cist cut in the chalk.
This is called a simple interment.

4. Urn burial, with incremation, when the body was burned,
and the bones and ashes deposited within a sepulchral urn,
which is generally, though not in all cases, reversed. By the
web of cloth still remaining in some instances, it appears that
the ashes were wrapped up in a linen cloth and fastened by a
small brass pin, several of which, intermixed with the ashes,
have been found.

" Of these modes of burial, the first was probably most
primitive; articles of iron bespeak a later period; and it is
further probable, that the two modes of burying the body by
fire were adopted at one and the same period. We have in
stances where the body has been inclosed in a wooden chest,
riveted with brass, or within the more simple covering of an
unbarked timber tree."

A very remarkable resemblance in form exists between the
various kinds of British barrows and the mounds of this coun
try; in this respect, indeed, there is scarcely a perceptible
difference between them. The curious will find in Hoare's
Ancient Wiltshire, 1812; Stukeley's Stonehenge and Itinera-
rium ; Rowland's Antiquities of Anglesey, 1723; Camden's
Britannia ; Grose's Antiquities ; in the British Archaeologia,
thirty volumes, quarto; Higgins's Celtic Druids, 1827 ; Bor-
lase's Ancient Cornwall ; and in numerous other works upon the
subject, abundant illustrations of the correctness of this obser
vation. Sir R. C. Hoare has attempted to make the variety
of form exhibited by these barrows the basis of a classification,
distinguishing the eras of their construction, and even the caste
and condition of the dead which they cover. It is probable
that some varieties of form may have predominated at a par
ticular period, and that the dimensions of the barrow may have,
in some degree, corresponded with the rank of the dead. Fur-

OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. 205

ther than this, however, the theory is not well sustained. Sir
Richard enumerates not less than eleven kinds of tumuli, dis
tinguished from each other by their form, viz :

1st. The Long Barrow, which resembles half an egg, cut
lengthwise, one end a little broader than the other, generally
ditched around the base, sometimes inclosed in a circle, and
occasionally set round with upright stones. Supposed to be
the oldest form of the Celtic barrows. Contents : usually a
number of skeletons at the broad end, lying in a confused man
ner, and generally covered with a pile of stones or flints. In
other parts, stags' horns, fragments of rude pottery, and burnt
bones.

2d. The Bowl Barrow, the form of which is indicated by the
name, with or without a ditch, and having a slight depression
in the top. Supposed to be a family mausoleum.

3d. The Bell Barrow, a modification of the Bowl Barrow,
supposed to have been formed by placing a new top thereon,
for additional interment.

4th. The Druid Barrows, inclosed by a vallum and ditch,
the latter always interior to the former ; the number of mounds
within the inclosure, varying from one to fifteen or twenty.
Contents : skeletons, small cups, beads of amber, glass, and jet,
small lance-heads, and very rarely, sepulchral urns, all of
elegant workmanship. Sir Richard supposes, from the pre
dominance of ornaments, that they were devoted to females.
Supposed to be family cemeteries.

5th. The Pond, Barrow, consisting of a simple circular vallum
or ditch. Fosbroke doubts whether these should be denomi
nated barrows, and suggests that they may have been Druidi-
cal tribunals. They are identical in form with many of the
small circles of the "West. No remains found in them.

6th. The Twin Barrow, comprised of two barrows joining
each other, and inclosed in a circle. Supposed by Sir Richard

206 SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS AND MONUMENTS, ETC.

to be the monuments of individuals closely allied to each other
by blood or friendship.

The remaining classes are but slight and hardly appreciable
modifications of those already described.

The rude natives of New Zealand erect tumuli over their
dead, who are sometimes burned previous to interment. Their
arms and ornaments are deposited with them. Custom rigor
ously enjoins that these monuments to the departed should be
carefully watched over. A woman at Clarence River, who
neglected to weed and trim her husband's tumulus, was put to
death in consequence of her neglect. — (Angas' Australia and
New Zealand, vol. II., p. 280 ; Grafs Australia, vol. L, p.
227.) Similar monuments, most usually constructed of stone,
and sometimes of great size and regularity, were often erected
over the dead by the natives of the larger Polynesian Islands,
where they still remain, enduring records of the primitive cus
toms of the islanders. — (Ellis's Polynesian Researches, vol.
III., pp. 242, 325 ; Beechey's Nar., pp. 20, 37 ; La Perouse
Voy., vol. Ill, p. 194.)

Without noticing further the burial customs of nations, an
cient and modern, in the various quarters of the globe, enough
has been presented to show the general prevalence of mound-
sepulture, and the nearly uniform, practices which attended it.
As remarked at the outset, it is the simplest method of per
petuating the memory of the dead. Its general adoption by
different and widely separated people, must not, therefore, be
taken to indicate any extraordinary dependence.

CHAPTER XIII.

PROBABLE FUNERAL RITES OP THE MOUND-BUILDERS.

FROM various features discovered in the sepulchral mounds
of New York as well as in those of the West, it has been sug
gested that sacrifices or ceremonies of some kind, in which fire
performed a part, were solemnized above the dead. The gen
eral occurrence of a layer of charcoal at some point near the
surface of the mound, bearing evidence of having been heaped
over while burning, and sometimes having mingled with it
human bones, the bones of animals, and relics of art, affords
ample basis for the conjecture. We have seen that in the
burials of Chili, sacrifices and libations were made at the tumuli
of the dead ; in Peru, the burial rites were very similar, and in
cases where the deceased was of the Inca race, or a person of
consequence, his wives and domestics were put to death, that
they might accompany and serve him in another world. On
the death of the Inca Huyana Capac, it is said that over one
thousand victims were slain at his tomb. Similar practices pre
vailed among many of the South American savage tribes ; also
in Central America and in Mexico. In the latter country, the
arms, implements, and ornaments of the deceased were burned
or buried with him ; and, as we have already said, an animal
resembling a dog, called by the Mexicans techichi, was killed, to
accompany his soul in its journey to the world of spirits. If
the body was burned, the ashes were collected in an earthen pot ;
in this was deposited a gem. which it was supposed would serve
in the next world for a heart ; and the urn was buried in a deep

208 PROBABLE FUNERAL RITES

ditch.* Eighty days thereafter, oblations of meats and drinks
were made over the grave. On the decease of persons of con
sequence, their slaves and servants were put to death ; some
times in great numbers. Analogous customs prevailed among
the Natchez, when, on the death of the Suns, many human vic
tims were sacrificed. Among the savage North American tribes,
no custom was more general than that of making oblations at
the tombs of the dead : dogs were sometimes sacrificed at the
burial ; and horses are now occasionally slain by the "Western
tribes upon the graves of their owners. Libations in some
cases were made at the tomb, and repeated at intervals for
years. According to Charlevoix. at the " Feasts of the Dead,"
or general burial of the Hurons and Iroquois, dances, games,
and combats constituted a part of the ceremonies of the occasion.
Yanegas (Hist. California, L, p. 104) says, The California
Indians bury or burn their dead indifferently, as chances to be
most convenient. Vancouver ( Voy. III., pp. 182, 242) men
tions two instances, in which the natives of the Northwest coast
burned their dead ; but we are not left to infer that the cus
tom was general. A singular funeral custom is mentioned as
prevailing among the Takali, or Carriers, one of the Oregon
tribes, and a branch of the great Algonquin family. They
always burn their dead upon a pyre ; in case the deceased has a
wife, she is obliged to lie by the side of the corpse until the fire

* " They (the Mexicans) made it the office of the priests to inter
the dead and perform the funeral obsequies. They buried them in their
own gardens, and in the courts of their own houses. Some were carried
to the places of sacrifice in the mountains ; others were burned, and the
ashes afterward buried in the temples ; and with all were buried what
ever they had of apparel, stones, and jewels. They did put the ashes
of the dead in pots, and with them their valuables, how rich soever they
might be. If it were a king or lord who was dead, they offered slaves to
be put to death, and gave apparel to such as came to the interment. * * *
They did set food and drink on the graves of the dead, imagining that
their souls did feed thereon."— (Acosta in Purchas, Vol. III., p. 1029.)

OF THE MOUND-BUILDERS. 209

is lighted and the heat becomes intense. If, in the estimation
of the spectators, she abandons the pyre too early, she is thrust,
back, and thus often falls a sacrifice. The Medicine-men of this
tribe pretend to receive the spirit of the dead in their hands,
after the corpse is burned, and to be able to transfer it to any
one they choose, who then bears the name of the dead, in addi
tion to his own. — (Narrative of U. S. Exploring Expedition,
vol. IV., p. 453.)

Father Creux, a Jesuit Missionary in Canada, in 1639, no
tices a fact which affords a curious antithesis to the customs of
the Mexicans, above presented by Clavigero : namely, that the
Hurocs cut off the flesh from the bones of those who were
drowned or frozen, and burned it ; the skeleton alone was
buried. Charlevoix (vol. II., p. 189) confirms this statement.
He adds, that the bodies of those slain in battle were burned,
probably for the more easy transportation of their ashes to the
burial-grounds of their fathers.

La Hontan (vol. II., p. 53) states that " The savages upon
the Long River [Mississippi?] burn their dead; reserving the
bodies until there are a sufficient number to burn together,
which is performed out of the village, in a place set apart for
the purpose." This statement does not find support in other
authorities.

" They appease the souls of the dead with offerings of meats
and drinks. Every woman whose child dies at a distance from
home, makes a journey, once a year, if possible, to its place of
burial, to pour a libation on its grave." — (Loskid, p. 76.)

With these facts and the suggestions of analogy before us, we
are certainly justified in the inference that the burials in the
mounds were attended with sacrifices, perhaps of human victims,
with oblations, and, it is probable, with games and ceremonies
corresponding with those which prevailed, at one period, in the
Old World.

It was remarked, in a preceding chapter, that the highest

210 PROBABLE FUNERAL RITES

points of the hills and the jutting bluffs of the table-lands bor
dering the valleys of the Western rivers, are often crowned
with mounds. Although generally supposed to have been de
signed for " look-outs," or places of observation, investigation has
shown that a portion of them, at least, were sepulchral in their
original purposes. Clavigero observes of the Mexicans, that
they had no particular places assigned for the burial of
their dead, but entombed them in the fields and on the moun
tains. It is possible that an ambition like that which governed
the selection of the place of sepulture of the Omahaw chief,
Blackbird, also influenced the ancient people in the disposal of
their dead. He was buried sitting on his favorite horse, on the
summit of a high hill overlooking the Mississippi, "that he might
see the strangers coming to trade with his people." So, too, the
chiefs of the mound-builders may have desired, at their death?
to be placed where, with the eyes of a spirit, they might watch
over their people thronging the fertile valleys beneath their
tombs. Thus an early Greek poet speaks of the tomb of The-
mistocles overlooking the Piraeus :

" Then shall thy mound, conspicuous on the shore,
Salute the mariners who pass the sea,
Keep watch on all who enter or depart,
And be the umpire in the naval strife."

Plato comicus, ap. Plut. vit. Themisl.

A somewhat similar sentiment occurs in the Iliad, where
Hector, speaking of one he is to slay in single combat, says :

" The long-haired Greeks
To him, upon the shores of Hellespont,
A mound shall heap ; that those in after-times
Who sail along the darksome sea shall say,
' This is the monument of one long since
Borne to his grave, by mighty Hector slain.' "

The ancient Anglo-Saxon was not without a similar ambi
tion. The dying Beowulf enjoins :

OF THE MOUND-BUILDERS. 211

" Command the famous in war
to make a mound,
bright after the funeral fire,
upon the nose of the promontory.
Which shall for a memorial
to my people
rise high aloft
on Hronesness ;
that the sea-sailors
may afterward call it
Beowulfs barrow,
when the Brentings
over the darkness of the floods
shall sail afar." — Beowulf, v. 5599.

The size of the aboriginal mounds of the West was no doubt
regulated in a degree by the dignity of the individuals over
whose remains they were erected, or by the regard in which
they were held by their people. In the number or value of
their inclosed relics, the various mounds, great and small, ex
hibit little difference. We have, however, seen, according to
Ulloa, that the character of the deposites as well as the size of
the mound was, in Peru, a sure indication of the state and
power of the dead. Such was the case among the ancients.
Beowulf requests that his people may raise a barrow over him
proportionate in size to the respect entertained for his memory :

'• Old of life, he spake a whole multitude of words, and com
manded me to greet you ; he bade that ye should make, accord
ing to the deeds of your friend, on the place of the funeral pile,
the lofty barrow, large and famous, even as he was of men the
most worthy warrior." — (Beowulf, I., 6183.)

In the subsequent burial of Beowulf, the burning of the body,
the sacrifices, the games, the songs and orations in praise of the
dead and in commemoration of his deeds, we have a vivid pic
ture of the funeral customs of the olden time, — customs not
peculiar to the old Continent, but prevailing among the nations

212 PROBABLE FUNERAL RITES, ETC.

of the New "World, and probably attending the burials of the
ancient people whose monuments we are investigating. Beowulf s
people carry into effect his desire, and the poem ends with this
description of his interment : —

" For him then prepared the people of the Geats a funeral
pile upon the earth, strong, hung round with helmets, with war-
boards (shields), and with bright byrnies, as he had requested.
The heroes, weeping, then laid down in the midst the famous
chieftain, their dear lord. Then began on the hill the mightiest
of funeral fires the warriors to awake : the wood-smoke rose
aloft dark from the fire ; noisily it went, mingled with weep
ing. The mixture of the wind lay. on till it the bone-house
[body] had broken, hot in his breast. Sad in mind, sorry in
mood, they mourned the death of their lord. * * * Made
then the people of the Westerns a mound over the sea ; it was
high and broad, by the sailors over the waves to be seen afar.
And they built up, during ten days, the beacon of the war-re
nowned, the [king] of swords. They surrounded it with a wall,
in the most honorable manner that wise men could desire. They
put into the mound rings and bright gems, all such ornaments
as the fierce-minded men had before taken from the hoard : they
suffered the earth to hold the treasures of warriors, gold on the
sand ; there it yet remaineth, as useless to men as it was of old.
Then round the mound rode of beasts of war, of nobles, a troop,
twelve in all ; they would speak about the king, they would call
him to mind, relate the song of words, speak themselves ; they
praised his valor, and his deeds of bravery they judged with
honor, as it is fitting that a man his friendly lord should extol,
should love him in his soul, when he must depart from his body
to become valueless. Thus mourned the people of the Geats,
his domestic comrades, their dear lord ; they said that he was
of the kings of the world the mildest of men and the most gen
tle, the most gracious to his people, and the most jealous of
glory"— (Beowulf, v. 6268.)

CHAPTER XIV.

THE MOUNDS NOT GENERAL BURIAL-PLACES; GREAT INDIAN
CEMETERIES OF THE WEST.

ALLUSION has been made, in the body of this work, to the
large cemeteries which have been discovered at various places
in the Mississippi valley, and the suggestion ventured that they
owe their origin to practices similar to those which prevailed
among the Indians of New York and Canada, of collecting, at
stated intervals, the bones of the dead, and depositing them in
pits or trenches. There are many interesting facts connected
with these cemeteries, which merit attention, and justify a re
currence to the subject.

Nothing is more common in the accounts given of Western
mounds, than the loose and very vague remark, that certain
ones or all of them " contain vast quantities of human bones."
To this circumstance seems attributable, in a great degree, the
prevailing and very erroneous impression, that the mounds are
simple tombs, or rather grand cemeteries, containing the re
mains of an entire race. The Grave Creek mound is spoken of
by Atwater, Doddridge. and other writers, as a grand mausoleum
"undoubtedly containing many thousand human skeletons."
An investigation has shown it to contain but a very few skele
tons ; and examinations of several other tumult, characterized
in similar extravagant terms, have been attended with like re
sults. The mounds of the West can be regarded only to a very
limited extent as the burial-places of the people who built them.
But little more than one-half of their number are clearly sepul-

214

GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST.

chral in their character; and these, except in extraordinary
cases, contain but a single skeleton each.*

We must seek elsewhere for the general depositories of the
dead of the mound-builders. It has been suggested that the

* The authority of Mr. Samuel R. Brown, author of the " Western
Gazetteer, or Emigrant's Directory," published in 1817, has been quoted
by various writers on American antiquities, and has been supposed to
sustain the conclusion that the mounds were vast receptacles of the dead,
slain in battle. It will be seen, however, from Mr. Brown's account of his
explorations, that the mounds which he examined contained depositcs of
different dates, one of which was clearly of the modern Indians, though
the fact does not appear to have suggested itself to the mind of the ex
plorer, or to have occurred to the writers who have followed him. The
material portions of Mr. Brown's account are subjoined :

" We examined from fifteen to twenty of these mounds. In some,
whose height was from fifteen to twenty feet, we could not find more
than four or five skeletons. In one, not the least appearance of a human
bone was to be found. Others were so full of bones as to warrant the
belief that they originally contained at least one hundred bodies ; chil
dren of different ages and the full-grown seemed to have been piled to
gether promiscuously. * * * In the progress of our researches, we
obtained ample testimony that these masses of earth were the work of a
savage people. We discovered a piece of glass resembling the bottom of
a tumbler, but concave; several stone axes, etc. * * * There was
no appearance of iron ; one of the skulls was found pierced by an arrow,
which was still sticking in it, driven about half way through before its
force was spent. It was about six inches long. The subjects of this
mound were doubtless killed in battle and hastily buried. In digging
to the bottom of them, we invariably came to a stratum of ashes, from
six inches to two feet thick, which rests on the original earth. These
ashes contain coals, fragments of brands, and pieces of calcined bones.
From the quantity of ashes and bones, and the appearance of the earth
underneath, it was evident that large fires must have been kept burning
for several days previous to commencing the mound, and that a consid
erable number of victims must have been sacrificed by burning on the
spot." — (Brown's Gazetteer of the West, p. 58.)

" That some of the mounds served for tombs, we have the conclusive
evidence that they abound in human bones. It has often been asserted,

GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST. 215

caves of the limestone regions of Kentucky and Tennessee were
used as sepulchres. Some of these are represented to have con
tained thousands of bodies, preserved by the natural properties
of these caves, clothed in strange fabrics, composed of a coarse
species of cloth interwoven with feathers, in fanciful and taste
ful patterns, resembling the feather-cloth of Mexico, of which
such glowing descriptions were given by the conquerors.* Ex-

that some of the mounds are full of bones that are perforated, as though
the living subjects were slain in battle ; and that the skeletons are heaped
together in promiscuous confusion, as if buried after a conflict, without
order or arrangement. The bones which we have seen were such, and so
arranged, as might be expected in the common process of solemn and
deliberate inhumation." — (Flint.)

" The vulgar opinion has been circulated by various writers, that un
der these mounds were buried the bodies of those who were slain in
battle. They probably pertained to the particular tribe of a country,
and were restricted to the principals among them ; for it is not to be sup
posed that the inhabitants were indiscriminately buried under tumuli.
Their burial-places must be sought elsewhere." — (Sir Richard C. Hoare,
an the Barrows of Great Britain.')

* The nitrous caves of Kentucky were found to contain a consid
erable number of desiccated human bodies ; they were termed mummies,
and, for a time, created much speculation. They were generally en
veloped in skins, in a species of bark, or in feather-cloth, and placed in
a squatting posture. It is said that hundreds of these were taken from
a cave near Lexington, and burned by the early settlers. The bodies ap
pear to have owed their preservation entirely to natural causes. It has
been inferred, from the resemblance between the envelopes of these
bodies and the feather-cloths of Mexico, that the people who thus de
posited their dead were very ancient, and probably an offshoot from
Mexico. We have, however, abundant evidence to show that fabrics of
this kind were manufactured by the Southern Indian tribes. The chroni
cler of Soto's expedition reports having found " a great many mantles
made of white, red, green, and blue feathers, very convenient for the
winter." Du Pratz also describes this feather fabric as of common use ;
and Adair observes: "They likewise make turkey-feather blankets,
twisting the inner end of the feathers very fast in a double, strong thread
of the inner bark of the mulberry," etc.— (Am. Inds., p. 423.)

216 GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST.

tensive, however, as these cave depositories may have been, they
fail, in view of the abundant evidences of a vast ancient popu
lation, to answer the question, What became of the dead of the
ancient people? In Tennessee, as well as in Kentucky and

In May, 1835, a cavern cemetery was discovered on the banks of the
Ohio River, opposite Steubenville. It was thirty or forty feet in cir
cumference, and filled with human bones. " They were of all ages, and
had been thrown in indiscriminately after the removal of the flesh. They
seemed to have been deposited at different periods of time, those on the
top alone being in a good state of preservation." — {Morton's Crania
Americana, p. 235.) Dr. Morton regards these remains as of no great age,
and as undoubtedly belonging to individuals of the barbarous tribes.

A similar cave was discovered some years ago, at Golconda, on the
Ohio River, Illinois. It contained many skeletons. — {Crania Am., p.
234.) Henry, in his travels, mentions a cave in the island of Mackinaw,
in Lake Huron, the floor of which was covered with human bones. He
expresses the opinion that it was formerly filled with them. The Indians
knew nothing concerning the deposite ; our author, nevertheless, ven
tures the conjecture, that the cave was an ancient receptacle of the bones
of prisoners sacrificed at the Indian war-feasts. " I have always observed,"
he continues, " that the Indians pay particular attention to the bones of
sacrifices, preserving them unbroken, and depositing them in some place
exclusively appropriated to the purpose."— {Travels, p. 111.)

In the State of Durango, Mexico, some cave depositories have been
discovered, which have given rise to very exaggerated accounts. Some
of them have represented that as many as a million of bodies were found
in a single cavern. All the information which we have, that can be re
garded as authentic, is contained in Dr. Wislizenus's Memoir of the Ex
pedition under Doniphan, published by order of Congress, p. 69. After
crossing the Rio Nasas, we arrived at San Lorenzo. " On the right
hand, or south of us, was a chain of limestone hills running parallel to
the road. At the foot of a hill belonging to the chain, Sefior de Gaba
pointed out a place to me where, some years ago, a remarkable discovery
had been made. In the year 1838, a Mexican, Don Juan Flores, perceived
the hidden entrance to a cave. He entered, and found nearly one thou
sand well-preserved Indian corpses, squatted together on the ground,
with their hands folded below their knees. They were dressed in fine
blankets, made of the fibres of lechuguilla, with sandals made of a species
of liana, and were ornamented with colored scarfs, with beads of seeds

GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST.

217

Missouri, extensive cemeteries have been discovered. For a
description of some of those of Tennessee, the public are in
debted to Prof. TROOST, of Nashville. — (Trans. Am. Ethnol.
Soc., vol. I., p. 358.) One is mentioned by him in the imme
diate vicinity of that town, which is about a mile in length, and
of indefinite breadth. No less than six others equally exten
sive are found within a radius of ten miles. The graves are
lined with flat stones, and occur in ranges. "Within these, skele
tons much decayed are found, also various relics, some of which
are recognized as identical with those found in the mounds of
Ohio, suggesting a common origin. This identity is further in
dicated, though not established, by the presence of mounds and
other structures in the vicinity of these cemeteries. Beads,
composed of perforated shells, of the genus Marginella, were
discovered by Dr. Troost in the graves. These have been found
in both the sepulchral and sacrificial mounds north of the Ohio ;
as have also beads and other ornaments, made probably from
the columella of the strombus gigas, similar to those found by
this explorer in the graves above mentioned. How far these
coincidences may be traced, can only be determined when the
same mind which has investigated one class of remains shall be
able to investigate the other.

Near Sparta, in Tennessee, are several extensive cemeteries,
in which the bones of the dead were deposited, inclosed in short

of fruits, polished bones, etc. This is a very insufficient account of this
mysterious burying-place. The Mexicans supposed it belonged to the
Lipans, an old Indian tribe which from time immemorial has roved and
still roams over the Bolson de Mahimi. I had heard at Chihuahua of
this discovery, and was fortunate enough to secure a skull which had
been taken from the cave."

Among the South American nations, cave-burial seems to have been
common. Humboldt describes a cave-sepulchre of the Atures, which
he discovered on the sources of the Orinoco. It contained nearly six
hundred skeletons, regularly arranged in baskets and earthen vases.
Some of the skeletons had been bleached, others painted, and all, it is
worthy of remark, had been deposited after the removal of the flesh.
10

218 GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST.

coffins or boxes, made of flat stones. These coffins measure
about two feet in length and nine inches in depth. A small,
rude, earthen vessel, accompanied by some small shells, is usually
found near the head of each skeleton. — (Feather stonhaugtts
Trav., p. 48.) Similar burial-places are found in Missouri, par
ticularly in the vicinity of the Marimec River. The " coffins "
are neatly constructed of long flat stones, planted vertically, and
adapted to each other edge to edge, so as to form a continuous
wall. At either end of the grave the stones project a little
above the surface. These stone sarcophagi are usually from
three to four, but sometimes as many as six feet in length. The
bones in these appear to have been deposited after having been
separated from the flesh, in accordance with a practice well
known to have been common among many Indian tribes. —
(Bectts Gaz. of Missouri, p. 274 ; James's Exped., vol. I., p.
55.) Other extensive cemeteries are found in various parts of
the country. One near Alexandria, in Arkansas, is said to be
a mile square.*

A very extensive cemetery has been discovered in Bracken
county, Kentucky, occupying nearly the whole of the " bottom "

or plain, on the south bank of the Ohio, between Bracken and

»

* Accounts of a number of these ancient cemeteries are given by
Gen. Lewis Collins, in his recently published History of Kentucky, from
which the following notices are condensed. Six miles N. E. of Bow
ling Green, Warren county, there is a cave which has a perpendicular
descent of about thirty or forty feet. At the bottom are vast quantities
of human bones. — (p. 541.) On the north bank of Green River, in the
vicinity of Bowling Green, are a great many ancient graves ; some of
which are formed of stones set edgewise. A similar cemetery occurs
near the mouth of Peter's creek, on Big Barren River ; the bones are
inclosed in stone coffins, which are about three feet long, and from one
.to one and a half wide. On the same river, three miles above Glasgow,
and on Skegg's creek, five miles S. W. of the same place, are caves con
taining human bones ; those in the last-named cavern seem to be exclu
sively the bones of small children. — (p. 177.) Similar caverns are found
in Union and Meade counties, all of which are said to contain human
bones in abundance.

GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST. 219

Turtle creeks. The village of Augusta has been built upon it
in latter times. The following account of this cemetery was
communicated to the author by Gen. John Payne, of Augusta.
It will be observed that iron was discovered in some of the
graves ; which demonstrates that a portion of the burials took
place since communication was established between the whites
and Indians, and very likely within the 18th century.

" The beautiful bottom upon which it stands, extends from
one creek to the other, about a mile and a half, and averaging
about 800 yards wide. The town is laid off at the upper end
of the bottom. The hill back of it is high, but not precipitous ;
and upon arriving at the summit, it almost immediately falls
toward the south with a gentle but deep descent, and immedi
ately there rises another hill. I am thus particular, that you
may have a knowledge of the ground where now rest the skele
tons of hundreds, perhaps thousands, of an ancient race, as well
as of the surrounding localities. The soil of the bottom-land is
alluvial. .'../

" The village rests upon one vast cemetery : indeed, the
whole bottom appears to have been a great burying-ground ; for
a post hole can hardly be dug in any part of it without turning
up human bones, particularly within three or four hundred
yards of the river bank. The ground appears to have been
thrown up into ridges, one end resting on the river bank, and
the other extending out some two, others three hundred yards,
with depressions between of about one hundred feet, the ridges
rising to an elevation of about three feet, and are about fifty or
sixty yards wide. These ridges are full of human skeletons,
regularly buried. My house, at the lower end of the village,
stands upon one of these ridges : and in excavating a foundation
for the basement story, seventy by sixty feet, and four feet deep,
we exhumed one hundred and ten skeletons, numbered by the
skulls ; but there were several more, the skulls of which were so
much decayed and intermingled with others that I did not take
them into the calculation. I have no doubt that there were at

220 GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST.

least one hundred and forty bodies buried within the bounds
above mentioned ; and then on every side the skeletons had
been severed, a part taken away while the remains were left
sticking in the wall. My garden, extending one hundred and
fifty feet back from my house, is manured with human bones,
and is very productive. I cannot turn up a spadeful of earth
without disturbing the remains of the ancient dead.

" Those exhumed by me, I have said, appeared to have been
regularly buried ; they were about two feet below the surface
generally, but some not more than a foot or eighteen inches,
invariably with their heads toward the river — the river at this
point running south 70° west ; some had rough unhammered
stones extending on both sides the full length, with a head and
foot stone, and a stone covering the head ; others, again, would
have only a stone on each side of the head, a head and foot stone,
and a stone covering the head ; others, only a head and foot stone ;
and others, and much the greatest number, had ' nothing to
mark the ground where they were laid.' Most of the bones
were entire ; but when exposed to the atmosphere, many soon
crumbled into dust, though others remained quite firm. Several
of the skulls, in a good state of preservation, I had in my house
for months, until they were broken up. The teeth appeared
sound : I do not recollect an instance of defective teeth ; there
were many absent teeth, but this evidently arose from their
dropping out after burial. There were some skeletons of
children : the bones of those mouldered into dust almost imme
diately.

" Many articles of Indian ornament, use, and warfare were
excavated, such as arrow-heads of flint and bone, glass beads,
and that peculiar kind of ancient Indian pottery, formed of clay
and pulverized or pounded muscle-shells, which had evidently
received the action of heat to harden it. Some of the speci
mens of the latter were very perfect, with well-formed ears, like
our pottery ware ; some well-formed, handsome stone pipes,

GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST. 221

glass beads, both black and blue, ornaments of bone, etc. The
other ridges, where they have been opened, have exhibited like
results : they are full of human bones, apparently regularly
buried ; but the skeletons have not been always found to lie at
right angles with the river, but sometimes parallel, and at other
times diagonally. Upon this bottom, and covering these re
mains in 1792, when the bottom was first settled, stood some
of the largest trees of the forest. "We have sycamores now
standing on the bank, between these remains and the river, five
feet in diameter at the stump.

" There is another fact which perhaps I should mention.
Maj. Davis, who owned a farm on the Augusta bottom, about
half a mile below the village, passing opposite his lands where
a part of the bank had fallen into the river, discovered a bone
sticking out of the bank ; and upon drawing it out, it proved to
be the bone of the right arm, and upon the wrist there were
three hammered iron rings. They were evidently of manufac
tured iron, round and formed to fit the wrist : the ends brought
together but not welded or closed ; the iron was destroyed — it
had been so completely oxydized as to break very easily ; the
workmanship was rough, and the print of the hammer was upon
them.

" A full cart-load of bones, taken from the basement story of
my house, I had wheeled off into my garden ; over them I
erected a mound, and crowned it with a summer-house ; and
there they shall rest for the future.

" About forty years ago, Dr. Overton, then of Lexington, was
upon a visit to Augusta. I had heard of a large pile of stones
upon the spur of a hill overlooking the Ohio, about three miles
above. We went to visit it, worked hard nearly all day, and,
at the depth of about five feet in the centre of the pile, found
about a half bushel of charcoal and ashes ; this was all that we
could discover.

" I know of no fortifications, nor of any mounds or tumuli, in

222 GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST.

the county of Bracken. At Claysville, near the bank of
Licking River, there is a very large mound ; but I have not
been informed that either curiosity or scientific research has
induced the citizens to open it."

Cemeteries, analogous to those in Tennessee and Kentucky,
as already observed, exist in Ohio. One, in the extreme
northeastern part of the State, at Conneaut, on Lake Erie,
covers about four acres. " It is in the form of an oblong
square, and appears to have been laid out in lots running north
and south, and exhibits all the order and propriety of arrange
ment deemed necessary to constitute Christian burial. The
graves are distinguished by slight depressions, disposed in
straight rows, and were originally estimated to number from
two to three thousand. Some were examined in 1800, and
found to contain human bones, blackened by time, which,
on exposure, crumbled to dust. On the first examination of
the ground by the early settlers, they found it covered with a
primitive forest. A number of mounds occur in the vicinity.
The pioneers observed that the lands around this place ex
hibited signs of having once been thrown up in squares and
terraces, and laid out in gardens." — (How's Gaz. of Ohio,
p. 40.)

A cemetery also occurs in Coshocton county, in the same
state, which is described by Dr. Hildreth of Marietta, in Silli-
man's Journal of Science and Art. It is situated a short dis
tance below the town of Coshocton, on an elevated, gravelly
alluvion; in 1830, it covered about ten acres. The graves
were arranged regularly in rows, with avenues between them ;
and the heads of the skeletons were placed to the west. Traces
of wood were observed around some of the skeletons ; from
which circumstance it is supposed the bodies were deposited in
coffins. The interments had evidently been what may be de
nominated bone, burials, and were not made until after the
decomposition of the flesh. The graves, consequently, measure
but little more than three feet in length, the bones being dis-

GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST. 223

membered and packed upon each other, or flexed together, thus
giving rise to the popular error of an aboriginal pigmy race.
No relics are described as accompanying the human remains.*
Near this cemetery is a large mound.

How far these cemeteries may be regarded as the deposito
ries of the mound-builders, we are unprepared to say. Dr.
T roost is disposed to regard the " pigmy graves" as of compar
atively late origin, and distinguishes between them and the
cemeteries of the more ancient race. He observes : " Some
consider these places as battle-grounds, and the- graves, those of
the slain ; but that is not the case. The Indians do not bury
fallen foes : they leave them to- be devoured by wild animals ;
their own slain they carry to their towns, or hang up in mats,
on trees. They have their burying festivals, when they collect
the bones thus preserved, and bury them. In my opinion, the
numerous small graves which are attributed to a race of
pigmies, had this origin. I have opened numbers of them, and
found them filled with mouldering bones, which, judging from
the fragments, belonged to common-sized men. The bones in
these graves lay without order. This is not the case with the
old extinct race, whose graves are much larger, the skeletons
being generally stretched out. Nevertheless, I have found
these also more or less doubled up."* It is extremely probable

* It is said that in one of the graves were found pieces of oaken boards,
together with some wrought iron nails. If such were the fact, the burial
must have been made subsequent to the commencement of European
intercourse. It is possible that this was a burial of later date than the
others.

* Trans. Am. Ethnog. Soc., vol. I., p. 358. Dr. Troost describes these
graves as " rude fabrics, composed of rough flat stones (mostly a kind
of slaty lime and sandstone, abundant in Tennessee). These were laid
on the ground, in an excavation made for the purpose : upon them were
put, edgewise, two similar stones of about the same length as the
former ; and two small ones were put at the extremities, so as to form
an oblong box of the size of a man. When a coffin was to be con
structed next to it, one of the side stones served for both, and conse-

r

224 GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST.

that the large cemeteries of Ohio, and those of Kentucky and
Tennessee, had a common origin. The absence of stone coffins
in the former may perhaps be ascribed to the greater difficulty
of procuring stones for the purpose of constructing them.
Quite a number of stone graves have, nevertheless, been found
in Ohio, entirely corresponding in structure with those above
described ; all of which answer perfectly to the dstvaen or kistvaen
of the British antiquaries.

It is the opinion of Dr. Morton, founded upon an examination
of the human remains found in some of the " pigmy graves" of
Tennessee, that " the so-called pigmies of the "Western country
were merely children, who, for reasons not readily explained,
but which actuate some religious communities of our own time,
were buried apart from the adult people of their tribe." — (An
Inquiry into the Distinctive Characteristics of the American
Race, p. 44.)

quently they lay in straight rows, in one layer only: I never found one
above the other."

The vulgar notion of a pigmy race, founded upon the small size of
some of the ancient stone graves, was for a time associated with another
equally absurd. Some skulls of old persons were taken from those
cemeteries: the teeth had been lost and the alveoles obliterated, ex
posing the sharp edge of the jaw-bone ; whence it was inferred that the
ancient pigmies were destitute of teeth, and had jaws like those of a
turtle!

CHAPTER XV.

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

IT has elsewhere been observed, " that the structure, not less
than the form and position, of a large number of the aboriginal
inclosures of the Mississippi valley, render it certain that they
were designed for other than defensive purposes." — (Ancient
Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, p. 47.) They are dis
tinguished for their regularity : most are circular, others are
square or rectangular, and a few are elliptical or octagonal.
Sometimes these figures are combined in the same group.
While the defensive works for the most part occupy high hills
and other commanding positions, and in their form correspond
to the natural features of the ground upon which they are
built, the sacred inclosures almost invariably occur upon the
level river terraces, where the surface is least undulating. The
ditch, in the few instances where that feature is discovered, is,
with rare exceptions, interior to the embankment ; and, in pro
curing the material comprising the latter, great care seems to
have been exercised by the builders to preserve the surface of
the surrounding plain smooth, and, as far as practicable, un
broken. The further fact that many of these regular works
are commanded from neighboring eminences, not to mention
the absence of supplies of water, seems conclusively to establish,
that whatever may have been their secondary purposes, they
were not primarily connected with any military system.

It has also been observed that these inclosures contain
mounds, evidently of sacred origin. Some of them correspond

10*

1

226 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

in form with the ancient pyramidal temples of Mexico and
Central America, and others cover altars upon which were
offered the sacrifices prescribed by the aboriginal ritual.

Upon the basis of these facts, it is assumed that the inclo-
sures of the West, not manifestly defensive in their purposes,
were in some way connected with the superstitions of their
builders; an assumption supported by the well-known fact that
the most imposing monuments of human labor and skill, in
early times, were those which were erected under the influence
of religious zeal.

Proceeding upon this assumption, we next inquire what
relations these works sustain to the sacred structures of the
various aboriginal nations of this continent, and to those erected
by the primitive nations of the Old World, and to what extent
they may be regarded as indicating the religious beliefs and
conceptions of their builders 1

TEMPLES OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

The temples of most of the North American Indian tribes
were of the rudest character, and distinguished only by their
greater size from the ordinary huts of the natives. The ground
which they occupied was considered sacred, and an area around
them was sometimes inclosed and consecrated to religious
rites. Like the religious structures of the Druids, they were
usually places of deliberation and council ; within them the
priests performed the ceremonies of their religion, and within
them the chiefs and warriors gathered to consult on public
affairs, to make war and conclude peace. Within them also
was maintained the sacred fire of those nations which adhered
to the requirements of sun-worship. The Narragansett Indians
of New England, and the nations of Virginia, both kept up
perpetual fires in their temples, as did also the Natchez and
the other tribes which assimilated to the semi-civilized natives
of Central America. — (Purchases Pilgrims, IV., p. 1868;
McCullocWs Researches, p. 3 ; Loskiel,p. 39; Catlin's N. A

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 227

Indians, vol. I., pp. 88, 158.) Among the Natchez, these
temples were sometimes decorated with rude carvings and
paintings, which probably were not without their significance.

Berkley describes with some minuteness a Quioccosan or
sacred building of the Virginia Indians. It was constructed in
precisely the same manner with their cabins generally, but was
somewhat larger. It was thirty feet long by eighteen broad ;
and around and at some distance from it, were " set up posts,
with faces carved on them and painted." The entrance was
barricaded with logs ; thus there was neither window nor pas
sage for the light, except the door. In the centre of the build
ing was a fire-place, and near one end was suspended a partition
of mats, behind which, on shelves, were found three other mats,
carefully rolled up. " In one of them," says our author, " we
found some bones, which we judged to be the bones of men ; in
another we found some Indian tomahawks, finely graven and
painted ; and in the third, some materials which, when put
together, formed a rude figure of a man, which was their okee,
kiwassee, Quioccos, or idol." — (Hist. Virginia, p. 166.)

Smith, in his description of Virginia, says, that " in every
territory of a Werowance is a temple and a priest — two or
three, or more." He mentions also, " upon the top of certain
red sandy hills, great houses filled with images of their kings
and devils, and tombs of their predecessors. Which houses are
neere sixty foot in length, built arborwise. This place they
account so holy, that none but priests or kings dare come into
it, nor the savages dare not go up in boats by it, but that they
solemnly cast some pieces of copper, white beads, or pocones in
the river. In this place are commonly resident seven priests." —
(Smith in Purchas, vol. IV., p. 1701.)

Marchand mentions a temple among the natives of Coxe's
Channel (N. "W. Coast), which had some relation to the primi
tive open temples of the Old World. " It is surrounded by
strong posts, seven or eight feet high, in which are preserved

228

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

all the tall trees that are then growing ; but all the shrubs are
carefully torn up, and the ground is everywhere put in order
and well beaten. In the midst of this inclosure, where a cave
is sometimes made, is seen a square and uncovered edifice,
constructed with handsome planks, the workmanship of which
is admirable ; and a stranger cannot behold without admiration
that they are twenty- five feet in length, by four in breadth, and
two and a half inches in thickness." — (Marchand1 s Voy.^ vol.
I., p. 409.) Yanegas states that there was a temple, in his day.
at the Island of St. Catherines, on the coast of California, which
had a spacious level court, where the Indians performed their
sacrifices. The place of the altar was a large circular space,
with an inclosure of feathers of divers colors ; and within the
circle was an image strangely painted, representing some devil,
according to the manner of the Indians of Mexico, holding in
his hand the figures of the sun and the moon. — ( Vanegas's
California, vol. I., p. 105.)

Prince Maximilian has described to us the " Medicine lodge "
of the Minataree Indians, of which the subjoined engraving
(Fig. 41) is a plan. It is situated in the centre of the village,
and consists of an elliptical space, one hundred and twenty

FIG. 41.

feet in length, inclosed by a fence ten or twelve feet high, com
posed of reeds and poles, somewhat inclining inwards. It has
an entrance to the left ; d, d, d, d, are four fires ; and in the
semi-elliptical recesses, the medicine men and elders of the

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

229

tribe have their seats. — (Travels in America, p. 419.) The
place occupied by the spectators, is indicated by /, / The
Mandans had similar " medicine lodges," except that they were
circular in form. They had also a sacred area in the centre of
their village ; and within it was placed a shrine of high mys
tery, around which their religious dances were performed.

It would be profitless to inquire further into the character
of the sacred edifices, "medicine lodges," or " council houses"
of the hunter tribes. It will be seen at once, that they reflect
little if any light upon the structures under notice.

No sooner, however, do we pass to the southward, and arrive
among the Creeks, Natchez, and affiliated Floridian tribes,
than we discover traces of structures which, if they do not
entirely correspond with the regular earth-works of the West,
nevertheless seem to be somewhat analogous to them. These
natives, it will be remembered, had made some slight advances
in civilization, were agricultural in their habits, lived in con
siderable towns, had a systematized religion, and sustained
many other resemblances to the semi-civilized nations of the
continent.

Adair, in his account of these Indians, frequently mentions
K the Holy Square" surrounding their temples, and within which
their religious rites were performed. He does not, however,
descend to particularize ; and we are left to conjecture what
were its dimensions, and how its boundaries were designated.
It must have been of considerable size ; for he several times
speaks of it as receiving an entire village or tribe, at the time
of the great annual festivals. He is so absorbed, however, in
his favorite theory, that he cannot describe any feature except
by the name borne by its fancied counterpart among the Jews.
So we are not surprised in finding, within " the Sacred Square,"
and standing near its western side, a Sanctum Sanctorum, or
most holy place, inclosed by a mud-wall about breast high. It
was here that the consecrated vessels of earthenware, conch-

230 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

shells, etc., were deposited. This sacred place, according to
our authority, could not be approached by any but the magi or
priests. Indeed, so great a holiness attached to the sacred
squares themselves, that it was believed if the great annual
sacrifice were made elsewhere, it would not only be unavailable
for the purposes required, but bring down the anger of the god
to propitiate whose favor it was instituted, viz., the genial god, the
god of almost universal adoration among rude people, the fountain
of heat and light, the divine fire, The Sun ! Within this square,
at least at the time of the great festival, the women were not
allowed to enter, nor those persons who had neglected to com
ply with certain prescribed purifying ceremonies, or who had
been guilty of certain specified crimes.

The deficiencies in Adair's account are supplied to a consid
erable extent by Bartram, in a MS. work on the Creek Indians,
now in possession of Dr. S. T. Morton, of Philadelphia. He
not only describes the " public squares " alluded to by Adair,
in which the religious ceremonies of the Indians were per
formed, and their deliberative councils held, but also com
municates the interesting and important fact that they some
times appropriated to their purposes the ancient inclosures
and other monuments found in the country, and concerning
the origin of which they professed no knowledge. His account,
apart from its bearings on the questions before us, has a general
interest which justifies its insertion entire.

"CHUNK YARDS. — The 'Chunk Yards' of the Muscogulges
or Creeks, are rectangular areas, generally occupying the cen
tre of the town. The Public Square and Rotunda, or Great
Winter Council House, stand at the two opposite corners of
them. They are generally very extensive, especially in the
large, old towns : some of them are from six to nine hundred
feet in length, and of proportionate breadth. The area is
exactly level, and sunk two, sometimes three feet below the
banks or terraces surrounding them, which are occasionally

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 231

two in number, one behind and above the other, and composed
of the earth taken from the area at the time of its formation.
These banks or terraces serve the purpose of seats for specta
tors. In the centre of this yard or area there is a low circular
mound or eminence, in the middle of which stands erect the
' Chunk Pole,' which is a high obelisk or four-square pillar
declining upwards to an obtuse point.* This is of wood, the
heart or inward resinous part of a sound pine tree, and is very
durable ; it is generally from thirty to forty feet in height, and
to the top is fastened some object which serves as a mark to
shoot at, with arrows or the rifle, at certain appointed times.
Near each corner of one end of the yard stands erect a less
pole or pillar, about twelve feet high, called a ' slave post,' for
the reason that to them are bound the captives condemned to
be burnt. These posts are usually decorated with the scalps
of slain enemies, suspended by strings from the top. They
are often crowned with the white dry skull of an enemy.

" It thus appears that this area is designed for a public place
of exhibition, for shows, games, etc. Formerly, there is little
doubt, most barbarous and tragical scenes were enacted within
them, such as the torturing and burning of captives, who were
here forced to run the gauntlet, bruised and beaten with sticks
and burning chunks of wood. The Indians do not now prac
tise these cruelties : but there are some old traders who have
witnessed them in former times. I inquired of these traders
for what reason these areas were called ' Chunk Yards ;' they
were in general ignorant, yet, for the most part, concurred in a
lame story that it originated in the circumstance of its having
been a place of torture, and that the name was but an inter
pretation of the Indian term designating them.f

* This pole, it may here be observed, corresponds in position with
certain erect stones, found by Mr. Stephens and other travelers, occu
pying the centre of the areas inclosed by the temples of Central Amer
ica and Yucatan, and which, as will be seen in due time, were un
doubtedly phallic emblems.

t According to Adair, Du Pratz, and other writers, the Cherokees

232 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

"I observed none of these yards in use in any of the Cher
okee towns ; and where I have mentioned them, in the Chero
kee country, it must be understood that I saw only the remains
or vestiges of them among the ruins of ancient towns. In the
existing Cherokee towns which I visited, although there were
ancient mounds and signs of the yard adjoining, yet the yard
was either built upon or turned into a garden plat, or other
wise appropriated. Indeed, I am convinced that the Chunk
Yards now or lately in use among the Creeks are of very
ancient date, and not the work of the present Indians ; although
they are now kept in repair by them, being swept very clean
every day, and the poles kept up and decorated in the manner
I have described.

" The following plan, Fig. 42 , will illustrate the form and
character of these yards.

" A. The great area, surrounded by terraces or banks.

" B. A circular eminence, at one end of the yard, commonly
nine or ten feet higher than the ground round about. Upon
this mound stands the great Rotunda, Hot House, or Winter
Council House of the present Creeks. It was probably
designed and used by the ancients who constructed it, for the
same purpose.

and probably the Creeks were much addicted to a singular game, played
with a rod or pole and a circular stone, which was called chungke. Mr.
Catliii describes this game as still existing under the name of " Tchung-
kee" among the Minitarees and other tribes on the Missouri. It also
prevailed among some of the Ohio Indians. It has been suggested that
the areas called chunk or chunky yards by Bartram, derived their names
from the circumstance that they were, among other objects, devoted
to games, among which that of the chungke was prominent. This sug
gestion derives some support from Adair. who says, " They have, near
their State House, a square piece of ground, well cleared; and fine sand
is strewn over it when requisite to promote a swifter motion to what
they throw along it."— (American Indians, p. 402.) It is therefore not
improbable that these square areas were denominated chungke yards.

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

233

" C. A square terrace or eminence, about the same height
with the circular one just described, occupying a position at
the other end of the yard. Upon this stands the Public
Square.

" The banks inclosing the yard are indicated by the letters
&, b, b, b ; c indicates the ' Chunk Pole; and d, d, the ' Slave
Posts.1

FIG. 42.

" Sometimes the square, instead of being open at the ends, as
shown in the plan, is closed upon all sides by the banks. In
the lately built or new Creek towns, they do not raise a mound
for the foundation of their rotundas or public squares. The
yard, however, is retained, and the public buildings occupy

234

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

nearly the same position in respect to it. They also retain the
central obelisk and the slave posts.

ARRANGEMENT OF THE PUBLIC BUILDINGS.

" The following engraving, Fig. 43, exhibits the most com
mon plan or arrangement of the Chunk Yard, Public Square,
and Rotunda, in the modern Creek towns.

FIG. 43.

u A. The Public Square.

" B. The Rotunda : #, the entrance opening toward the
square ; the three circular lines show the rows of seats or rude
sofas ; the punctures show the posts or columns which support
the building; c, the great central pillar, surrounded by the
spiral fire which gives light to the edifice.*

" C. Part of the Chunk Yard.

* It is to be regretted that our author has not given the dimensions
of the " Rotunda." It would be interesting to know how it would com
pare, in that respect, with the small circles so common throughout the
West.

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 235

li Within this Rotunda, they seem to keep the Eternal Fire,
where it is guarded by the priests. Within it the new fire is
kindled on the occasion of the Feast of the First Fruits. No
woman .is allowed to step within the Rotunda, and it is death
for any to enter. None but a priest can bring the sacred fire
forth. The spiral fire in the centre of the building is very
curious : it seems to light up into a flame, of itself, at the ap
pointed time ; but how this is done I know not.

THE PUBLIC SQ.UARE.

" The Public Square of the Creeks consists of four buildings
of equal size, placed one upon each side of a quadrangular
court. The principal or Council House, is divided transversely
into three equal apartments, separated from each other by a
low clay wall. This building is also divided longitudinally into
two nearly equal parts ; the foremost or front is an open piazza,
where are seats for the council. The middle apartment is for
the king (mico), the great war chief, second head man, and other
venerable and worthy chiefs and warriors. The two others are
for the warriors and citizens generally. The back apartment
of this house is quite close and dark, and without entrances,
except three very low arched holes or doors for admitting the
priests. Here are deposited all the most valuable public things,
as the eagle's tail or national standard, the sacred calumet, the
drums, and all the apparatus of the priests. None but the
priests having the care of these articles are admitted ; and it is
said to be certain death for any other person to enter.*

* This is probably the apartment designated by Adair as the sanctum
sanctorum. Du Pratz (p. 851) states that the temples of the Natchez
were divided into two apartments, in the larger of which the eternal fire
was kept. " The inner apartment," he observes, " was very dark, receiv
ing no light except what came in at the door. I could meet nothing here
but two boards, on which were placed some things like small toys, which
I had not light to peruse." These sacred inner rooms cannot fail to re
mind us of the dark chambers of Palenque and Copan, within which Mr.

236 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

" Fronting this is another building, called the ' Banqueting
House ;' and the edifices upon either hand are halls to accommo
date the people on public occasions, as feasts, festivals, etc.
The three buildings last mentioned are very much alike, and
differ from the Council House only in not having the close back
apartment.

" The clay-plastered walls of the Creek houses, particularly
of the houses comprising the Public Square, are often covered
with paintings. These are, I think, hieroglyphics or mystical
writings, of the same use and purpose with those mentioned by
historians to be found upon the obelisks, pyramids, and other
monuments of the ancient Egyptians. They are much after the
same style and taste ; and though I never saw an instance of
perspective or chiaro-oscuro, yet the outlines were bold, natural,
and turned to convey some meaning, passion, or admonition,
and they may be said to speak to those who can read them.
The walls are plastered very smooth with red clay ; then the
figures or symbols are drawn with white clay, paste, or chalk :
if the walls are plastered with white clay, the figures are sketched
in red. brown, or bluish paste.

" Almost all kinds of animals, sometimes plants, flowers,
trees, etc., are depicted ; also figures of men in various attitudes,
some very ludicrous and even obscene. In some instances, the
membrum gencrationis virile is represented ; but I saw no in
stance of indelicacy in a female figure. Men are often pictured
with the head and other members of different kinds of animals,
as the wolf, buck, hare, horse, buffalo, snake, duck, turkey, tiger,
cat, crocodile, etc., etc. All these animals, on the other hand,
are depicted having the human head and other members, as

Stephens discovered the mystical tablets described in his volumes on
Central America. Nor is it difficult to trace a correspondence between
the pictured walls of these buildings, as described in the text, and the
sculptured fronts and elaborately painted walls of the Central American
temples.

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSTTRES.

237

also the head and members of other animals, so as to appear
monstrous.

CREEK TOWNS AND DWELLINGS.

The general position of the Chunk Yard and Public Build
ings of the Creeks, in respect to the dwellings of the Indians
themselves, is shown in the following engraved plan :

a 0

o ..... J

...... -

I ...... \ ..... .d

'

c/o

s

I ........ l p'T"!

FIG. 44

" A is the Rotunda ; B, the Public Square ; C, the grand
area, or Chunk Yard. The habitations of the citizens are
placed with considerable regularity in streets or ranges, as in
dicated in the plan."*

* " The dwellings of the Upper Creeks consist of little squares, or
rather of four oblong houses inclosing a square area, exactly on the plan
of the Public Square. Every family, however, has not four of these
houses : some have but three, others not more than two, and some but
one, according to the circumstances of the individual or the number of
his family. Those who possess four buildings have a particular use for
each : one serves for a cook-room or winter lodging-house, another as a

238

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

The inference might not unreasonably be drawn, from Bar-
tram's language, that the rectangular areas, surrounded by em
bankments, as also the square and circular mounds above men
tioned, were constructed by the Creeks. He, however, states
explicitly in his Travels, that the country in which these re
mains occur was occupied subsequently to the arrival of Euro-
summer lodging-house and hall for visitors, and another for a granary
or store-house, etc.

" The accompanying cut (Fig. 45) illustrates the plan of the dwelling

FIG. 45.

or villa of a Creek chief known among the traders by the name of Bos-
ten. A is the area inclosed by four buildings : the one upon the left, e,
was his lodging-house, and was large and commodious ; the building op
posite was a large, square, open pavilion, covered by a cedar roof, which
was supported by two rows of posts or pillars. Between each range of
pillars was a platform, raised about two feet and ascended by two steps ;
this was covered with checkered mats of curious workmanship, woven
of splints of canes variously colored. In the centre of the pavilion was a
square platform, raised somewhat higher than the others, and also cov
ered with mats. In this delightful, airy place, visitors were received
and entertained. The remaining two buildings were used, the one as a
cook-house, the other as a store-house.

" The Lower Creeks, or Seminoles, are not so regular in their build-
ings, public or private. The private houses of the Cherokees consist of

G

M-

FIG. 46.

one oblong log building, divided transversely into several apartments,
with a portico in front ; a round house, D, stands a little distance off, and
is used as a winter lodging-house."

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 239

peans by the Cherokees, who were afterward dispossessed by
the Creeks ; and that " it was probably, many ages preceding
the Cherokee invasion, inhabited by a single nation or confed
eracy, governed by common laws, possessing like customs, and
speaking the same language, but so ancient that neither the
Creeks nor the Cherokees, nor the nations they conquered,
could render any account by whom or for what purposes these
monuments were erected." He also inclines to the belief, that
the uses to which these structures were appropriated, by the
existing Indian tribes, were not widely different from those for
which they were originally built. Upon this point he adds :
" The mounds and large areas adjoining them seem to have
been raised in part for ornament and recreation, and likewise
to serve some other public purpose, since they are always so
situated as to command the most extensive prospect over the
country adjacent. The square terraces may have served as the
foundations of fortresses ; and perhaps the great pyramidal
mounds answered the purpose of look-outs, or were high places
for sacrifice."— (Travels, p. 518.)

From this account we gather the important fact, that in the
centre of the Creek (as also of the Cherokee) towns was a
" public square," surrounded by edifices devoted to public pur
poses ; and that accompanying this square, and placed in a fixed
position in respect to it, was an edifice, circular in form, which
was more especially dedicated to religious purposes, and within
which was kept up the eternal fire. In some cases these struc
tures, it seems, were elevated upon mounds.

Mr. Payne, in his MSS., thus describes the great Council
House of the Cherokees, which corresponds with the " Rotunda,"
mentioned by Bartram. After remarking that it was near this
that the dwellings of the Uku and head men of the tribe were
erected, and that it was always situated in a town capable of
accommodating a great number of people, he proceeds :

" Every part bore a mystical reference to the sanctity with
which they regarded the number seven. Seven posts were set

240 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

deep in the ground, equi-distant from each other, so as to form
seven equal sides ; though generally the roof, when it touched
the ground, as it sometimes did, was entirely circular. Upon
the seven posts seven very long beams were so placed, as to
rest one end on the ground, or periphery raised two or three feet
•with earth, while the other end stretched high in air, and all
soon met at a point directly over the centre of the floor. Other
pieces of timber were fastened transversely to these, answering
for ribs ; at first they were thatched with grass, and over it a
layer of clay, surmounted with another layer of grass, so as to
make it water-proof. The external appearance of the entire
building very much resembled an immense charcoal-pit. There
was an opening in the roof for the escape of the smoke. The
fire was in the centre. Anciently, they say, this was the sacred
fire handed down from above.

" The Council House door was always on the eastern side,
directly toward the rising sun. Before it was a portico. The
seven posts which supported the house were so set, that one
stood directly opposite the entrance, on the west side of the
structure. It was painted white, and had pins and shelves
attached to it, on which were hung or laid all the holy things
connected with their worship. * * * The space which was
regarded as most sacred, was that immediately back of the seat
of the Ukuj near the white post already mentioned. Among
the sacred things kept here were the sacred arks, and smaller
arks of clay for conveying the holy fire. * * * Adjacent
to the Council House, there was a large public square, the
sides formed by four one-story structures. The entrances at
each corner were wide and open. These structures were open
in front like piazzas, and each one was partitioned off into
several divisions, etc."

The embankment designating the outlines of the structure
here described, may be regarded as throwing direct light upon
the origin of the small circles so abundant in the valley of the
Ohio.

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 241

In the account of La Salle's last expedition to the mouth of
the Mississippi, published by the Chevalier Tonti, we have a
brief notice of the Taencas or Tenzas, from which the following
interesting passages, relating to the questions before us, are
extracted.

" As the first village of the Taenca stands on the other side
of a lake which is eight leagues in circumference, and half a
league over, we were forced to take a canoe to cross it. As soon
as we landed, I was surprised to see the grandeur of the village,
and the order of the cottages ; they are placed in divers rows,
and in a straight line, round about a large space, being all made
of earth and covered over with mats of cane. "We presently
took notice of two, fairer than the rest, one of which was the
prince's palace, and the other the temple. Each of them was
forty feet square, and the walls ten feet high and two feet
thick, the roof in the form of a cupola, and covered with a mat
of divers colors. * * * As to their religion, the prince told
me that they worship the sun ; that they had their temples,
their altars, and their priests. That in their temple there was
a fire which burned perpetually, as the proper emblem of the
sun. That at the decrease of the moon, they carried a great
dish of their greatest dainties to the door of the temple, as an
oblatory sacrifice ; which the priests offered to their god. and
then carried it home and feasted themselves therewith. * *
The next day I had the curiosity to see their temple, and
the old gentleman led me thither. The structure of it was
exactly the same with that of the prince's house As to the
outside, it is encompassed with a great high wall, the space betwixt
that and the temple forming a kind of court where people may
icalk. On the top of the wall were several pikes to be seen,
upon which were stuck the heads of their own most notorious
criminals, or of their enemies. On the top of the frontispiece,
there is a great knob raised, all covered round with hair, and
above that a heap of scalps, in the form of a trophy.
The inside of the temple is only a Nave, painted on all sides,

11

242 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

at top with all sorts of figures ; in the midst of it is a hearth
raised in the form of an altar, upon which there is burning con
tinually three great billets of wood, standing up on end ; and
two priests, dressed in white vestments, are ever looking after
it to make up the fire and supply it. It is round this the
people come to say their prayers with strange kind of hum-
mings. The prayers are three times a day : at sunrise, at noon,
and at sunset. They made me take notice of a sort of closet
cut out of the wall, the inside of which was very fine. I could
only see the roof of it, on the top of which there hung a couple
of spread eagles, which looked toward the sun.* I wanted to
go in ; but they told me it was the tabernacle of their god,
and that it was permitted to none but their high priest to go in.
And I was told it was the repository of their wealth and
treasures, as jewels, gold and silver, precious stones, and some
goods that came out from Europe, which they had from their
neighbors. — (La Salle, Trans. N. Y. Hist. Soc., vol. II., pp.
269, 272.)

THE TEMPLES OF MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND PERU.

The pyramidal temples of the Aztecs, which perhaps better
deserve the name of altars, or the scriptural name of " high
places," were always surrounded by large inclosures, most
usually of a square form. The great temple of Mexico, which
is described by all the early authors as nearly identical in form
and structure with all the principal temples of Auahuac, con
sisted first of an immense square area, " surrounded by a wall
of stone and lime, eight feet thick, with battlements, ornamented
with many stone figures in the form of serpents." The extent
of this inclosure, which occupied the centre of the ancient city,
may be inferred from the assertion of Cortez, that it might con
tain a town of five hundred houses. It was paved with pol-

* Adair speaks of " cherub imical figures in the Synhedria " of the
Muscogulges or Creeks.— (p. 30.)

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 243

ished stones, so smooth, says Bernal Diaz, that " the horses of
the Spaniards could not move over them without slipping."
The four walls of this inclosure corresponded with the cardinal
points, and gateways opened midway upon each side, from
which, according to Gomera, led off broad and elevated' avenues
or roads. — (Purchas, vol. III., p. 1 133.) In the centre of this
grand area arose the great temple, an immense pyramidal struc
ture of five stages, faced with stone, three hundred feet square
at the base, and one hundred and twenty feet in height,
truncated, with a level summit, upon which were situated two
towers, the shrines of the divinities to which it was consecrated.
It was here the sacrifices were performed and the eternal fire
maintained. One of these shrines was dedicated to Tezcatli-
poca, the other to Huitzlipochtli ; which divinities sustained
the same relation to each other, in the Mexican mythology, as
Brahma and Siva in that of the Hindus. Both are the same
god, under different aspects, and with the God of the Rain,
Tlaloc, constitute a Triad, almost identical with that which
runs through all the mythologies of the East.

Besides this great pyramid, according to Clavigero, there
are forty other similar structures, of smaller size, consecrated
to separate divinities ; one was called Tezcacalli, " House of
the Shining Mirrors," which was covered with brilliant mate
rials, and sacred to Tezcatlipoca, the God of Light, the Soul
of the World, the Vivifier, the Spiritual Sun; another to
Tlaloc, the God of Water, the Fertilizer ; another to Quetzal-
coatl, said to have been the God of the Air, whose shrine was
distinguished by being circular, " even," says Gomera, " as the
winds go round about the heavens, for that consideration made
they his temple round."

Besides these, there were the dwellings of the priests
(amounting, according to Zarate, to 5,000) and of the attend
ants in the temples, and seminaries for the instruction of
youth ; and, if we are to credit some accounts, houses of re
ception for strangers who came to visit the temple and see the

244

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

grandeur of the court ; ponds and fountains, groves and gar
dens, in which flowers and " sweet smelling herbs " were cul
tivated for use in certain sacred rites, and for the decoration
of the altars. " And all this," says Solis, " without retracting
so much from that vast square but that eight or ten thousand
persons had sufficient room to dance in, upon their solemn
festivals." The area of this temple was consecrated ground ;
and it is related of Montezuma, that he only ventured to
introduce Cortez within its sacred limits, after having con
sulted with and received the permission of the priests, and
then only on the condition, in the words of Solis, that the
conquerors "should behave themselves with respect." The
Spaniards having exhibited, in the estimation of Montezuma, a
want of due reverence and ceremony, he hastily withdrew them
from the temple, while he himself remained to ask the pardon
of his gods for having permitted the impious intrusion.

There is a general concurrence in the accounts of this great
temple given by the early authorities, among whom are Cortez,
Diaz, and others, who witnessed what they described. They
all unite in presenting it as a type of the multitude of similar
structures which existed in Anahuac. Their glowing descrip
tions, making due allowance for the circumstances under which
they wrote, are sustained by the imposing ruins of Cholula.
Papantla, Mitla, Xoxachalco, Misantla, Quemada, and the
thousand other monuments which are yet unrecorded by the
antiquary, and which invest every sierra and valley of Mexico
with an interest hardly less absorbing than that which lingers
around the banks of the Nile.

From the number of these religious structures, we gather
some idea of the predominance of Mexican superstitions.
Solis speaks of eight temples in the city of Mexico, of nearly
equal grandeur with that above described, and estimates those
of smaller size to amount to two thousand in number, " dedi
cated to as many idols of different names, forms, and at
tributes." Torquemada estimates the number of temples in

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 245

the Mexican empire at forty thousand, and Clavigero places
the number far higher. " The architecture," he adds, " of the
great temples was for the most part the same with that of the
great temple of Mexico ; but there were many likewise of a
different structure, composed of a single body in the form of a
pyramid, with a staircase, etc." Gomera says, " they were
almost all of the same form : so that what we shall say of the
principal temple, will suffice to explain all the others."
Cortez, in a letter to Charles V., dated October 30, 1520,
states that he counted four hundred of these pyramidal tem
ples at Cholula.

From all sources we gather that the principal temples, or
rather sacred places of Mexico, consisted of large square areas,
surrounded by walls, with passages midway at their sides, from
which sometimes led off avenues or roads, and that within
these inclosures were pyramidal structures of various sizes,
dedicated to different divinities, as also the residences of the
priests, with groves, walks, etc.

Proceeding to Central America, we still find, so far as we
are informed concerning the remains of these countries, the
sacred inclosure and the pyramidal temple. The inclosure
surrounding the sacred edifices of Tuloom, already described
in another connection (page 162), was most probably the conse
crated ground of the ancient inhabitants. Its rectangular
form and the position of its gateways go far to connect it with
the corresponding structures of Mexico and the United States.
Grijalva, the first discoverer of Yucatan, alluding perhaps to
these very structures of Tuloom, " saw several places of wor
ship and temples, wide at the bottom and hollow at the top,
stately stone buildings, at the foot of which was an inclosure
of lime and stone." Del Rio assures us that the principal
structures, the temples of Palenque, were placed in " the centre
of a rectangular area, three hundred yards in breadth, and
four hundred and fifty in length." Assuming the word
" yard " to be a translation of the Spanish vara, which is about

246

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

thirty-three inches in length, we have the dimensions of this
area, 825 by 1240 feet. Herrara relates, concerning the build
ing of the town of Mayapan, by the ancient inhabitants of
Yucatan :

" They pitched upon a spot, eight leagues from the place
where Merida now stands, and fifteen from the sea, where they
made an inclosure of about half a quarter of a league [on
each side?], being a wall of dry stone with only two gates.
They built temples, calling the greatest of them Cuculcan, and
near to the inclosure the houses of the prime men. * * It
was afterward ordered that, since the inclosure was only for
the temples, the houses of the people should be built round
about." — (Herrara, vol. IV., p. 162.)

The accounts which we possess of the ancient religious
structures of Peru, although glowing with admiration of their
splendor and riches, are yet extremely vague as respects their
plan of construction. Enough, however, is easily gathered to
assure us that they consisted of large consecrated courts or
areas, like those of Mexico, in which the temples proper were
situated, together with fountains, gardens, and the residences
of the priests.

The great Temple of the Sun at Cuzco, in the description
of which the early Spaniards have expended every superla
tive of their language, consisted of a principal building and
several chapels and inferior edifices, covering a large extent of
ground, in the heart of the city, and completely encompassed
by a circular wall, which, with the edifices, was constructed of
stone. Aqueducts opened within this sacred inclosure ; and
within it were gardens, and walks among shrubs and flowers
of gold and silver, made in imitation of the productions of
nature. It was attended by four thousand priests. " The
ground," says La Vega, " for two hundred paces around the
temple, was considered holy, and no one was allowed to pass
within this boundary but with naked feet." Nor even under
these restrictions were any permitted to enter, except of the

r

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

247

blood of the Incas, in whom were centred the priestly and
civil functions of the government.

Besides the great Temple of the Sun, there was a large
number of inferior temples in Cuzco, estimated by Herrara at
three hundred. Numerous other temples are scattered over
the empire, all of which seem to have corresponded very nearly
in structure with that already described. The most celebrated
temple in Peru, next to that of Cuzco, was situated on an
island in Lake Titicaca, where it was believed Manco Capac
first made his appearance on earth. The whole surface of the
island was considered sacred. The Temple of Pachacamac is
described as being inclosed by walls, and to have "more
resembled a fortress than a temple." According to Roman,
"the temples of Peru were built upon high grounds or the
tops of hills, and were surrounded by four circular embank
ments of earth, one within the other. The temple stood in
the centre of the inclosed area, and was quadrangular in
form."

A structure, corresponding very nearly with this description,
is noticed by Humboldt, who denominates it, in accordance
with local traditions, Ingapilca, " House of the Incas," and
supposes it to have been a sort of fortified lodging-place of the
Incas, in their journeys from one part of the empire to the
other. It is situated at Cannar, and occupies the summit of a
hill. The " citadel " is a very regular oval, the greatest axis
of which is 125 feet, and consists of a wall, built of large
blocks of stone, rising to the height of sixteen feet. Within
this oval is a square edifice, containing but two rooms, which
resembles the ordinary stone dwellings of the present day.
Surrounding these is a much larger circular inclosure, which,
from the description and plate, we infer is not far from five
hundred feet in diameter. This series of works possesses few
military features, and it seems most likely that it was a temple
of the Sun. This opinion is confirmed by the fact that, at the
base of the hill of Cannar was formerly a famous shrine of

248 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

the Sun. consisting of the universal symbol of that luminary
formed by nature upon the face of a great rock. Humboldt
himself admits an apparent dependence between this shrine
and the structures above described. — (HumboldC s Res., vol.,
pp. 242, 248: fol. plates, No. 17.) Ulloa describes an ancient
Peruvian temple situated on a hill near the town of Cayambe,
perfectly circular in form, and open at the top. It was built
of unburnt bricks, cemented together with clay. — ( Ulloa, vol.
I., p. 486.)

TEMPLES OP POLYNESIAN ISLANDERS, HINDCJS, ETC.

Inclosures ruder in construction, yet nevertheless analogous
in form and identical in purpose with those here described,
were found among the Polynesian Islanders. The area of
their temples was frequently a square or parallelogram, pro
tected by stone walls, within which were pyramidal structures,
sometimes of great size. One of these, within the great in-
closure of Atehuru, was two hundred and seventy feet long, by
ninety-four feet broad, and fifty feet high ; flat on the summit,
which was reached by a flight of steps, much after the manner
of the Mexican Teocalli. Within the sacred area, and at the
base of these pyramidal structures, the idols were placed and
their altars erected. Here also were the dwellings of the
priests and of the keepers of the idols. The trees and other
objects within the walls were sacred. — (Ellis's Polynesian
Researches, vol. I., p. 340.) In some instances, instead of an
unbroken wall, the sacred area was indicated by a series of
pyramidal heaps of stones, placed at intervals, so as to con
stitute the leading points of a square, within which was placed
the temple proper. The ruins of a temple of this kind, called
Kaili, still exist in the island of Hawaii. — ( U. S. Exploring
Exped., vol. IV., p. 100.)

When we extend our inquiries to the eastern shores of the
old continent, we find in India the almost exact counterparts

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 249

of the religious structures of Central America : analogies fur
nishing the strongest support of the hypothesis which places
the origin of American semi-civilization in southern Asia. A
close and critical comparison of these monuments, in con
nection with the systems of religion to which they were
respectively dedicated, and the principles which governed their
erection, may lead to most interesting and important results.

In another connection, some of the more obvious analogies
will be pointed out ; with no view, however, of establishing
dependencies, but for the purpose of illustration and elucida
tion. It is sufficient for our present objects to remark, that
the temples of India and of the islands of the Indian seas,
both of modern and ancient date, are constructed and inclosed
in like manner with those already described. The consecrated
area is sometimes of vast extent, equaling if not exceeding in
this respect the largest of those which existed in Mexico.
These inclosures are square, and usually have their entrances
corresponding to the cardinal points. " The general style of
these buildings," says Bishop Heber, " is a large square court,
sometimes merely surrounded by a low brick wall, with balus
trades, indented at the top, with two or sometimes four towers
at the angles. In the centre of the principal front is, for the
most part, an entrance, often very handsome. In the middle
of the quadrangle, or in the middle of one of its sides opposite
the main entrance, is a pyramid, which is the temple of the
principal deity. The structure is sometimes octagonal, but
mostly square." — (Heber's Travels, vol. I., Chap. 3.) " Some
times a number of temples are built within this sacred area.
One at Chanchra, in Jesson, has twenty-one temples, and one
thousand acres of ground." — ( Ward, vol. III., p. 230.) The
Pagoda of Seringham is one of the most magnificent in India.
It stands on an island in the river Careri, in the dominions
of the Rajah of Tanjore. Seven square inclosures, formed by
walls twenty-five feet high, four feet thick, and three hundred
and fifty feet distant from each other, inclose a court in the
11*

250

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

centre, in which are sacred pyramidal structures, the abodes
of the gods of the Hindu pantheon, and among them the
sanctuary of the Supreme Vishnu. These various deities are
believed really to animate their respective pyramids or shrines.
Four large gates, one in the middle of each side, each sur
mounted by a tower, are the entrances to the several courts.
The outer wall is four miles in circumference. The number
of the inclosures has a symbolical signification, and refers to
the several regions into which the Universe, the abode of the
gods, was supposed to be divided, according to the theory of
the age in which the structure was built. — (Dudley's Naology,
p. 104; Caiman's Mythology of the Hindus, p. 157; Maurices
Indian Antiquities, vol. III., pp. 13, 50.) The great temple
of Jaggenath, at Orissa, the general resort of all Hindu sects,
is regarded as possessing such exceeding sanctity, that the
earth for twenty miles round is considered holy. The most
sacred, spot is an inclosed area about six hundred and fifty
feet square, which contains the temples of the idol and his
sister, surrounded by fifty lesser temples, all of pyramidal
form. — (Caiman's Myth, of the Hindus, p. 52.)

In the Island of Java are the remains of many ancient tem
ples, of similar character and construction. A large number
of these, designated as the ruins of Prambanai, exist in the
district of Pajang. One of the most perfect of the groups oc
curring here is termed by the natives " the Thousand Temples."
The group occupies a rectangular area six hundred feet long
and five hundred and fifty feet broad, and consists of four rows
of small pyramidal structures, inclosing a court, in which is
placed a large pyramidal edifice. The whole is surrounded by
a wall, having entrances midway on each side. Some of these
groups are disposed in squares of greater or less dimensions,
but all have a common character. — ( Crawford's Indian Archi
pelago, vol.. II., p. 196 ; Asiatic Researches, Calcutta, vol.
XIII.) There are also single temples of like form, occasionally
of great size, and generally surrounded by a series of inclosures.

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 251

The religious edifices and pyramidal shrines of the Japanese
are described by Ksempfer as " sweetly seated " in the midst of
large square inclosures, approached by spacious avenues, and
embracing within their walls springs, groves, and pleasant walks.
" The empire," observes our authority, " is full of these temples,
and their priests are without number. Only in and about
Miaco, they count nearly 4,000 temples and about 37,000
priests." — (Kcempfer's Japan, vol. II., p. 416.)

These examples might be greatly multiplied, so as to extend
the chain of analogies quite around the globe. Passing, how
ever, over the intermediate space, we come at once to the Brit
ish Islands.

PRIMITIVE TEMPLES OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS.

The British Islands, and the portion of the continent adja
cent to them, abound in ancient monuments, closely allied to
those under consideration. They have been very accurately in
vestigated and described by Camden, Borlase. Douglas, Hoare,
Cunnington, Higgins, Deane, and numerous others ; and the
world is familiar with their character. The researches of these
investigators have directed upon them all the lights of erudi
tion. Availing ourselves at once of the results of their labors,
we apply them to the elucidation of the mysterious monuments
of our own country.

The analogies which exist between one class of ancient Brit
ish remains and a corresponding class of American structures,
have already been briefly pointed out. There is, however,
another large division, more numerous and more interesting
than these, of widely different form and manifestly different de
sign. These consist, for the most part, of circular structures, of
greater or less dimensions, composed of earth or of upright
stones placed at short distances apart. These circles are some
times of great size, embracing many acres of ground ; but most
are of moderate dimensions, corresponding in this as generally

252 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

in other respects with those of this country. They are regarded
by all well-informed British antiquaries as religious in their
origin, and connected with the ancient Druidical system. This
conclusion is not entirely speculative, but rests in a great degree
upon traditional and historical facts. Borlase observes, " The
grandeur of design, the distance of the materials, the tediousness
with which all such massive works are erected, all show that they
were the fruits of peace and religion." " That they were erected,"
says Hoare, " for the double purpose of civil and religious assem
blies, may be admitted without controversy. They were public
edifices, constructed according to the rude fashion of the times,
and at a period when the Deity was worshipped in the most
simple and primitive manner, under the open canopy of heaven."
— (Ancient Wiltshire, vol. II., p. 122.) Caesar, writing of the
Druids, is understood to allude to their sacred structures in
the following terms : " Druides, certo anni tempore, considunt in
LOCO CONSECRATO. Hue omnes undique qui conlroversias habent
conveniunt, eorumque judiciis decretisque parent}"1 — (Cccsar, de
Bello Gallico, Lib. VI.) " Once a year the Druids assemble at
a consecrated place. Hither such as have suits depending flock
from all parts, and submit implicitly to their decrees." It need
not be added, that the Druids were priests and judges, the ex
pounders of religion and the administrators of justice ; they
were entrusted with the education of youth, and taught the
motions of the stars, the magnitude of the earth, the nature of
things, and the dignity and power of the gods. They officiated
at sacrifices and divinations ; they decided controversies, pun
ished the guilty, and rewarded the virtuous. Their power was
superior to that of the nobles, over whom they wielded the ter
rors of excommunication from a participation in the imperative
rites of their religion. They centred in themselves the occult
learning of the day, which seems to have been closely allied to
that of Phoenicia, if not, indeed, mainly derived from the East.
" The sacred places of the Druids were inclosed sometimes
with a fence of palisades, and sometimes with a mound of earth,

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 253

or with stones, to keep off the profane, and prevent all irreve
rent intrusion upon their mysteries.* Tacitus relates that the
early Germans considered their groves and woods as sacred :
these spots were consecrated to pious uses, and the holy recess
took the name of the divinity who filled the place, and whose
sanctuary was never permitted to be seen but with reverence
and awe. Agreeable to this was the early practice of the
Britons, who, according to the same authority, used similar
customs with the Germans." — ( Germania, C. ix. and C. xl.) In
the form of their temples, the Druids, for the most part,
adopted the circle ; and the generally received opinion is, that
all circular monuments were originally intended for devotional
purposes.

There are some earth-works in the British Islands, which
were clearly not defensive, but yet are rectangular. To these,
authors have hesitated in ascribing a date. One of the most
singular of these, which corresponds very nearly with that dis
covered near Tarlton, Pickaway county, Ohio (Ancient Monu
ments of the Mississippi Valley, Plate XXXVI., No. 1), occurs

FIG. 47.

* Salopia Antiqua, p. 10. Hermoldus. in his Chronicon de Rebus
Salivae, says that the Sclavonians prevented all access to their groves
and fountains, which they considered would become desecrated by the
entrance of Christians. They had their sacred oaks, which they sur
rounded by a fence of wicker-work. The tabooed palms and other trees
of the Marquesas and South Sea Islanders are protected from profane
contact in a like manner.

254 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

upon Banwell Hill, county of Wilts, England. The engraving on
the preceding page (Fig. 47) is reduced from the plan given by
Sir R. C. Hoare, who notices it briefly as follows : " Before
quitting this interesting eminence, I must not omit to take
notice of a very singular little earth-work, situated toward the
village of Banwell. Its form proclaims it to be Roman ; but I
cannot conceive to what use it was destined. The embankment
inclosing the cross is two hundred and thirty yards in extent, and
incloses nearly three-quarters of an acre." — (Ancient Wiltshire,
vol. II. ; Roman Era, p. 43.) There is certainly a most strik
ing coincidence ; yet it is one which it would be unsafe to re
gard as any other than accidental.

It may not be wholly inappropriate to mention that some of
the most ancient temples of India are built in the form of a
cross ; such is the shape of the great temple at Benares, and
that at Mathura. At the intersection of the four arms rises a
lofty dome. Such also is the shape of the subterranean temple
of New Grange, in Ireland. — (Tavernicr, vol. III., pp. 30, 47;
Faber's Pag. Idol., vol. III., p. 287 ; Higgles Celtic Druids,
p. 40.)

The circular form is certainly best adapted for the reception
of the devotees desiring to see and hear, or to participate in
parts of the sacrificial rites practised within them. But it is
claimed, and upon an array of evidence which will admit of no
dispute, that the form of the primitive temple was, with great
uniformity, that of the symbol of the religion to which it wad
consecrated, or of the god to whose worship it was dedicated.

The circle is the uniform symbol of the sun, alike among the
most savage as the most enlightened nations ; and the fact that
most of the ancient religious structures of the British Islands
are of that form, would seem to imply that the god of Celtic
adoration was symbolized as the Sun, and that the ancient Celtic
religion was a modification of what is usually termed sun or fire
worship. This implication is sustained by abundant evidence,
into which it is impossible, as it would be out of place, to enter

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 255

here. We have every reason for believing that the objects of
the Druidical worship were identical with those of the followers
of Baal (the Sun).* Like them, the Druids were addicted to
the study of the heavens, and in the same way they offered up
sacrifices to Baal, Bel, Belus, Belinus, Moloch, Apollo, or the
Sun. The connection of Druidism with the name of Baal, is well
known in the lines of Ausonius — himself a Druid — who writes :

" Tu Baiocassis, stirpe Druidum satus,

Si fama non fallit fidera,
Belini sacratum duels e templo genus."

Caesar says the Gauls worshipped Apollo : the Gauls were
followers of the Druidic rites according to the same authority.

SYMBOLISM OF TEMPLES.

The rationale of symbolism, as connected with temples, next
claims our attention. Not only was the doctrine of occasional
presence of universal acceptance among the followers of every
early religious system, but they believed that the gods made
temples and sacred structures their places of constant abode.
Their presence, in some instances, was supposed actually to
animate their shrines, and to consecrate the earth around them.
The Jews were assured that Jehovah dwelt between the emble
matic cherubim. In the hope of rendering his homage in the

* Salopia Antiqua, p. 7. The evidence upon this point, as remarked
in the text, is alike abundant and conclusive. The Phoenicians, who
undoubtedly penetrated into the British Islands at a very early day, in
troduced many of their own habits and superstitions. They were the
carriers of customs and opinions, as of wares, and dispersed the seeds
both of African and Asiatic idolatry in Europe. This conclusion is sus
tained not only by the striking resemblance between many of the reli
gious rites of the ancient Celts and those of Assyria and Egypt, but by
etymological evidences of a most positive character.— ( Thackeray's An
cient Britain, vol. I., pp. 10, 14: also, Introduction to Ancient Wiltshire,
and Higgins's Celtic Druids, ubi supra.)

250 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

actual presence of his God, the Mohammedan pilgrim makes
his weary journey to Mecca, and the Hindu devotee seeks, from
the remotest provinces, the shrine of Jaggenath. The same
idea of a living presence is manifested in the superstition of
the savage, who regards every remarkable tree, rock, cave,
spring, or stream, as the evidence or actual impersonation of a
divinity, and renders his homage in accordance with his belief.
The presence of the gods was formerly supposed to be favor
able, and powerfully conducive, if not indispensably necessary,
to the prosperity of cities and nations ; and as such was ever
desired and ever a cause of joy and exultation. The poet
Horace addresses the goddess Venus in terms significant of the
benefits resulting from her presence :

" 0 Goddess in blest Cyprus dwelling,
And Memphis wanting of Sithonian snow !"

So, too, Homer alludes to the celestial mountain of Greece :

" Olympus famed, the safe abode of gods,
By winds is never vexed, nor drenched with rain.
Snow falls not ; but the cloudless arch serene
Widely expands ; with brightness ever clear."

Influenced by opinions such as these, we can readily under
stand how the temple might take the symbolical form of the god
to whose worship it was dedicated ; thereby being made more
acceptable as his abode, at the same time that its form pro
claimed his presence. Sallust, in his treatise on the Gods and
the World, illustrates this ancient doctrine in the following
words : " As the providence of the gods is everywhere extended,
a certain habitude or fitness is all that is necessary in order to
receive their beneficent communications. But all habitude is
produced through imitation and similitude ; and hence temples
imitate the heavens, but altars the earth ; statues resemble life,
and on this account are similar to animals, etc."*

* The Pantheon at Rome was dedicated to all the gods ; who, instead

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 257

The earth, remarks an ingenious writer, being regarded as
God by a large portion of the heathen world, any structure
bearing that form might justly be considered as a symbol of
the Deity, indicative of his power and his presence. The im
port of the symbol caused the conviction and assurance that
all sacred structures ought, of necessity, to be constructed in its
form. — (Dudley on Symbolism, p. 43.)

This conviction seems to have prevailed among the Hebrews :
the " Ark of the Covenant," in which were deposited the tables
of the law, was essentially symbolical in its form. The form
of the Tabernacle in the wilderness, and of the great temple
on Mount Z ion, we may infer, was regarded as a matter of
importance, from the specific directions given for their con
struction. And the primitive Christians, we are assured, were
in a like manner influenced in the form of their sacred edi
fices.*

Vesta, in the later mythologies, was the igneous element
personified ; her globular temple on the banks of the Tiber
represented, we are told, the Orb of the Earth, cherished and

of rude shrines consecrated to each, as in the great temple of Mexico,
had their statues placed within the vast rotunda. The great concave
dome, we are expressly told by Pliny, was designed to represent the
vault of heaven ; " quod forma ejus convexa fastigiatam call similitudi-
nem ostenderet." Yet it seems to have been eminently a temple of the
solar Apollo, whose colossal image was placed immediately in front of
the entrance, the first and most imposing object which met the eye of
the spectator. — (See Faber, Pagan Idolatry, vol. III., p. 284 ; Maurice,
Ind. Antiq.vol. III., p. 185.) Mr. Dudley, who claims that the circle and
the square were the symbols of the reciprocal powers of nature, assumes
that the circular Pantheon, with its quadrangular portico, was intended
to signify the union of the two principles or powers. — (Naology, p. 390.)
* " In respect to the form and fashion of their churches, it was for the
most part oblong, to keep (say some, vide Constit. Apost., L. ii. C. 57)
the better correspondence with the fashion of a ship: the common
notion or metaphor by which the church was wont to be represented."
(Cave's Prim. Christianity, p. 65.)

258

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

made prolific by the central fire. — (Maurice, Ind. Antiq., vol.
III., p. 130.) The reason for the orbicular or oval form of her
temple was recognized in Ovid's day. He writes :

" What now is roofed with brass, was then of straw,
And the slight osier formed the wattled wall.
This spot, that now the fane of Vesta bears,
The palace was of Numa, king unshorn.
'Tis said the form is now, as erst of old ;
And the true reason may be well approved :
Vesta and Earth are one. A ceaseless fire
Burns in them both, and both alike pervades.
The earth, a globe supported on no prop,
Hangs, heavy weight, in all-subjected air."

Ovid, Fast., Lib. VI., 261.

Plutarch alludes, in similar terms, to the symbolical signifi
cance of the form of this temple. " Numa built a temple of
orbicular form, for the preservation of the sacred fire ; intending
by, the fashion of the edifice to shadow out, not so much the
earth, or Vesta considered in that character, as the whole uni
verse ; in the centre of which the Pythagoreans placed fire, and
which they called Yesta and Unity."*

* Plutarch de Iside et Osiride. M. Ramee has well expressed this
idea in his " Histoire Generate de V Architecture" from which we translate
the following passage :

"Among all the people of antiquity, intimately connected with the
idea of God, was that of the Earth as his habitation, and Heaven as his
eternal home. The universe, and especially the visible heavens, was for
this reason considered as a true Temple of the Divinity, built by Himself,
and was held as the primitive Temple, to be taken as a model, as the
type of all temples to be raised by the hand of man. It was, therefore,
considered unworthy of God and contrary to the idea held of Him, to
erect sanctuaries to the Supreme Being on the same plan as the houses
which man built for himself as a shelter and protection against the
changes of the seasons. A habitation for God, it was thought, should
resemble the Universe ; and for that reason it would bear a divine cha
racter, and the Divinity would therein be, as it were, at home. Hence
the construction of temples was regarded, in all antiquity, as a religious
or hieratic ,art, the inventors and masters of which, at first, were the
gods themselves."

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 259

The notions already alluded to as influencing the forms of
temples, controlled also the choice of their position, the nature
of their materials, and, when they were advanced from their
primitive rudeness, the character of their ornaments. The
crescent crowns the minaret of the Mohammedan; the sym
bolic trident of Siva, the dome consecrated to his worship ; and
the cross, in like manner, designates the church of the Chris
tian. The significance of the trident is not less obvious to
the Hindu, than that of the crescent to the Turk, or the sym
bol of his religion to the Christian ; yet to the stranger to
each, they would possess no higher value than might attach to
them in their character of ornaments.

Were it necessary to our purpose, the illustrations of the
various points here indicated might be greatly extended.
Enough has, however, been said to place in a plausible light
the fact (which probably no one would be disposed to deny),
that the form of the primitive temple was, to an eminent
degree, symbolical. In the words of Deane, " The figure of
the temple, in almost every religion with which we are
acquainted, is the hierogram of its god. The hierogram of
the sun was always a circle : the temples of the sun were cir
cular. The Arkites adored the personified ark of Noah : their
temples were built in the form of a ship. The Ophites adored
a serpent deity : their temples assumed the form of a serpent.
And to come home to our own times and feelings, the Chris
tian retains a remnant of the same idea when he builds his
temples in the form of a cross ; the cross being at once the
symbol of his creed, and the hierogram of his God." —
(Observations on Dracontia, by Rev. J. B. Deane, British
Archaologia, vol. XXV., p. 191.)

It is the fact that the religious conceptions, the philosophy
and physical speculations of the ancients, exerted a controlling
influence upon the construction of their sacred edifices, that
invests those monuments with interest, not only as works of
art, but as illustrations of man's primitive beliefs, — his notions

2(50 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

of cosmogony, and his philosophy of the earth and heavens.
" On every review," observes an eminent author, " and from
every region, accumulated proofs arise, how much more exten
sively than is generally supposed the designs of the ancients
in architecture were affected by their speculations in astrono
my, and by their mythological reveries." — (Maurice, 2nd.
Antiq., vol. III., p. 199.)

Having already taken this brief survey of the character of
the various primitive religious structures of various parts of
the world, and having indicated the principles upon which
those with the origin of which we are acquainted, sustaining
the closest analogy to those of our own country, were con
structed, we return with new aids to the investigation of the
latter.

As has already been several times observed, the aboriginal
temples, or rather sacred inclosures, of the Mississippi valley
are nearly all of regular figures, usually circular or elliptical,
sometimes square or rectangular ; exhibiting in this respect, as
also in their manner of combination, a uniformity which could
only result from a fixed and well-recognized design. Nothing
can be more obvious than that they were built in accordance
with a general plan, founded upon certain definite principles ;
and it is impossible to resist the conviction that their various
forms and combinations possessed some degree of significance,
and sustained some relation to the worship to which they were
dedicated. "We arrive at these conclusions from a simple con
templation of the monuments themselves, unaided by the sug
gestions of analogy, or the evidence furnished by the concurrent
practice of all early nations.*

When, however, we find these conclusions sustained by analo
gies of the most striking character, and discover that the my
thological and philosophical notions of primitive nations ex-

* " Nothing," says M. Leibnitz, " happens without a reason why it
happens so rather than otherwise."

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 261

hibited themselves in a symbolical system which extended even
to the form, position, and ornaments of their temples, then our
conclusions become invested with a double value, and we pro
ceed with some -degree of confidence to inquire how far we are
justified in supposing that the ancient structures of the Missis
sippi valley indicate the character of the worship to which they
were dedicated. We have, it is true, neither the light of tradi
tion nor of history to guide our inquiries ; the very name of the
mysterious people by whom these works were erected is lost to
both, and a night darker than that which was prophesied should
shroud the devoted " cities of the plain " rests upon them.
Under these disadvantages, every attempt to clear up the dark
ness may fail ; if, however, but partially successful — if but a
single ray of light be directed upon the subject of our inquiries,
the attempt will not be in vain, nor stand in need of an
apology.

By far the larger proportion of the sacred structures of our
country are circular in form ; so also were the temples of the
ancient Celts, for the received reason that they were dedicated
to the worship of the Sun, whose most obvious and almost
universal symbol is the circle. Assuming, upon the basis of
this and other analogies, that their circular form is allusive to
the former existence, among the people by whom they were
built, of a similar system or form of worship, what further
support do we find for the assumption, in the known religious
notions of the various American tribes and nations ? If, in
answer to this question, it should be found that Sun Worship,
if not of universal prevalence, greatly predominated throughout
the continent, the assumption already so well sustained by
analogy rises into the dignity of a well-supported hypothesis.

It has already been remarked, in another connection, that
the worship of the Sun was not less general in America than it
was at one period among the primitive nations of the Old
World. It existed among the savage hunter-tribes and among
the semi-civilized nations of the South ; where it assumed its

262 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

most complicated and imposing form, and approximated closely
to that which it sustained at an early period among the Asiatic
nations — the Egyptians, Assyrians, Hindoos, Scythians, and
their offshoots in Europe. It is well known that it predomi
nated in Peru, and was intimately connected with the civil
institutions of that empire. The race of the Incas claimed
their descent from the sun ; to that luminary they erected
their most gorgeous temples ; and the eternal fire, everywhere
emblematic of its influences, was watchfully maintained by the
virgins consecrated to its service. The royal Inca himself offi
ciated as priest of the sun, on every return of its annual festival.
The Peruvians also paid adoration to the moon, as the " wife
of the sun," — a clear recognition of the doctrine of the recipro
cal principles. In Mexico also, as in Central America, we still
discover, beneath a complication of strange observances and
bloody rites, the simplicity of Toltican Sabianism. Upon the
high altars of Aztec superstition, reeking with the blood of
countless human victims, we still find the eternal fire ; no
longer, however, under the benign guardianship of consecrated
virgins, but consigned to the vigilance of a stern and rigorous
priesthood. And, as the Inca trusted at his death to be
received to the bosom of his father, the Sun, so too did the
fiercer Aztec look forward with confidence to eternal existence
and beatitude in the " House of the Sun."*

The Natchez and their affiliated tribes were worshippers of
the sun, to which they erected temples and performed sacrifices.
And from what can be gathered concerning their temples, it is
rendered probable that they erected structures analogous to
those under notice. They also maintained a perpetual fire,
and their chiefs claimed the sun as their father. The chiefs
bore the distinguishing title of Suns, and united in themselves

* Clavigero, vol. II., p. 3. " They held for an assured faith that there
were nine places appointed for souls, and the chiefest place of glory
was to be near the sun." — (Gomera, in Purchas, vol III., p. 1137.)

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 263

the priestly and civil functions. — ( Charlevoix, Canada, vol. II.,
p. 273; Du Pratz, Hist. Louisiana, vol. II., pp. 178, 212;
Hcrriot, Hist. Canada,]*. 508.) The natives of the Barbadoes
and the West India islands generally, worshipped the same
celestial body in conjunction with the moon. — (Edward's Hist.
W. Ind., vol. I, p. 80 ; Davis 's Barbadoes, pp. 216, 236 ; Her-
rara,vol. I., p. 162.) The Hurons derived the descent of their
chiefs from the sun, and claimed that the sacred pipe proceeded
from that luminary. — ( Charlevoix, Canada, vol. I., p. 322 ;
Lafiteau, vol. I., p. 121.) The Pawnees, Mandans, and Mina-
tarees had a similar tradition and a kindred worship. — (NutaWs
Arkansas, p. 276.) The Dela wares and the Iroquois offered
sacrifices to the sun and moon ; and, in common with the
southern Indians, had a festival in honor of the elementary fire,
whi'ch they considered the first parent of the Indian nations.
It is probable that their council-fire was an original symbol of
their religion. — (Loskiel, pp. 41, 43; Golden' s Hist. Five Na
tions, vol. I., pp. 115, 175 ; Schoolcrafl' ]s Narrative, p. 20 ; Brad
ford's Res., p. 352.) The Virginian tribes were also sun wor
shippers, and sustained the perpetual fire in some of their
temples. The same is true, as we have already had occasion to
show, in a remarkable manner, of the Floridian tribes ; who, if
we are to credit the accounts of the early voyagers, sacrificed
human victims to the sun. — (Ribauld, MS. ; Le Moyne, in De
Bry ; Herrara, Florida ; Lafiteau, Moeurs des Sauvages, vol.
I., p. 158 ; Rochefort, Hist. Antilles, Chap. 8.)

The Esquimaux, the natives of the Northwest Coast, and the
California Indians, all shared in this worship. — (Hall's Voy.
(1631). pp. 38, 61 ; Vanegas's California, vol. I, p. 164.) It
prevailed to an equal extent among the savage tribes of South
America. In connection with the worship of the moon, it ex
isted among the Muyscas of Colombia, among the Araucanians,
the Puelches, and the Botucados of Brazil. — (Herrara, vol. V.,
p. 90; Molina, vol. II., p. 71; Dobrizho/er, vol. II, p. 89;
Mod. Trav. in Brazil, vol. II., p. 183.) The caziques of the

264 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

Guaranies, like those of the Natchez, were called Suns, and
claimed a like lofty lineage. The evidence upon this point
might be greatly extended, but enough has been adduced to
establish the general predominance of Sun "Worship in America.*

It will be seen, from this hasty survey, that the hypothesis
which ascribes to the square, circular, and other regular struc
tures of the Mississippi valley a religious origin, and to their
forms a symbolical significance, is sustained not only by the
most obvious circumstances of structure and position, but also
by striking analogies, derived from the form and known charac
ter of corresponding structures in other parts of the world. It
is further sustained by the nature of the worship, which, from
its wide diffusion and great prominence among the American
nations, we are justified in supposing was elementary and per
vaded the American continent from the earliest period.

It may be objected that a portion of these structures are
square or octangular, and cannot therefore, whatever may be
said of those bearing a circular form (and which are by far the
most numerous), be regarded as symbolizing the sun, or indicat
ing the prevalence of sun worship among the builders. Any
attempts to answer this question would doubtless involve a
very extended inquiry into the form and connections which this
worship assumed, both in the Old-and New Worlds, and would

* " Sun worship existed extensively in North as well as South America.
There is reason to believe that the ancestors of all the principal existing
tribes of America worshipped the Eternal Fire. Both from their records
and traditions, as well as their existing monuments, this conclusion is
irresistible. * * * Among the North American tribes, the graphic
Ke-ke-win, which depicts the sun, stands on their pictorial rolls as the
symbol of the Great Spirit ; and no important rite or ceremony is under
taken without an offering of tobacco to him. The weed is lit from fire
generated anew on each occasion." — (Schoolcraft, Address before N. Y-
Hist. Soc., 1846, p. 29.) " They believe in the sacred character of fire,
and regard it as the mysterious element of the universe typifying di
vinity."— Ib., p. 35.

'

ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 265

perhaps, after all, bear too much the character of a mere specu
lation to be satisfactory, or in any degree conclusive. For this
reason no attempt of the kind will be made. The observations
which follow are thrown out suggestively, as furnishing the
possible if not the probable principles upon which some of these
structures were built, and the reasons which may have influ
enced the singular combinations which we observe between
them.

It can be shown that the doctrine of the reciprocal principles
of nature, which entered so largely into the early idolatry of
the Eastern World, prevailed also in America. The sun and
the moon, or oftener, the sun and the earth, emblematized these
principles. According to Mr. Dudley and other writers on
symbolism, these powers among the primitive idolaters were
figuratively represented : the male principle by the circle, the
female principle by the square* The same authorities lay it
down as a rule, subject to few exceptions, that whenever the
circular form is adopted in sacred structures, the worship of the
male principle is indicated ; but when the quadrangular, then
the female principle. " At one time," says Mr. Dudley, " the
ancient world was divided in the worship of the two powers ;
but time and various circumstances contributed to effect a com
promise, which resulted in the combination of the two figures,
or the adoption of the octagonal form instead." Mr. Dudley
instances several examples of these combinations among the
early Grecian and Celtic remains, and observes, " if the sacred
structures of early antiquity were examined with reference to
this doctrine, many and ample proofs of its truth would be
discovered." — (Naology, pp. 345, 358, ubi supra.)

* " The Chinese have consecrated two temples, one to the Heavens,
the other to the Earth : the first is round, the second square, according
to the theory of their learned men ; who, with the Pythagoreans, regard
the earth as a cube, and the heavens a sphere." — (De Pau, Res. China
and Egypt, vol. II., p. 42.)

12

266 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES.

If we were to adopt the hypothesis advanced by Mr. Dudley,
the fact that the American nations almost universally enter
tained the . idea that the earth was square, would become in
vested with importance.

But, as already observed, these latter suggestions are simply
thrown forward as plausible, and not as indicating a settled
opinion. The refinement of symbolism which they imply, will,
however, appear less improbable, when we come to learn to what
extent the semi-civilized nations of America, in their religious
beliefs and conceptions, display an identity with the primitive
nations of the Old World.

The hypothesis of a symbolical design in the forms and com
binations of these structures may seem somewhat new and
startling to most minds. There are, however, many other facts
and considerations having a direct bearing upon it, which will
appear in a succeeding work. Meantime, and before passing
to collateral inquiries, it will not be out of place to repeat, that
the great size of many of the structures to which we have
assigned a sacred origin, precludes the idea that they were
temples in the ordinary acceptation of the term. It is probable
that, like the great circles of England, the squares of India,
Peru, and Mexico, they were the sacred inclosures within which
were erected the shrines of the gods of the ancient worship, and
the altars of the ancient religion. They may have embraced
consecrated groves, and, as they did in Mexico, the residences
of the ancient priesthood. Like the sacred structures of the
country last named, some of them may have been secondarily
designed for protection in times of danger.

CHAPTER XVI.

USE OF COPPER AND SILVER BY THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES.

IN the paragraphs relating to St. Lawrence county, mention
is made of a singular aboriginal deposit or burial, on the Cana
dian shore of the St. Lawrence River, near Brockville. Here
were found a number of skeletons and a variety of relics, among
which were a number of copper implements. They were buried
fourteen feet below the surface of the ground. Two of the
copper articles were clearly designed as spear-heads : they were
pointed, double-edged, and originally capable of some service.
One was a foot in length. A couple of copper knives accom
panied these, and also an implement which seems to have been
designed as a gouge. — (Ancient Monuments of Mississippi Valley,
p. 201.) Some implements entirely corresponding with these
have been found in Isle Royal, and at other places in and
around Lake Superior. Whether or not these are relics of the
existing Indian tribes, it is not undertaken to say, although it
seems highly probable that they are. That the Indians of New
England, New York, and Virginia, to a limited extent, pos
sessed copper ornaments and implements at the time of the
Discovery, is undoubted ; but it is not to be supposed for an
instant that they obtained it by smelting from the ores. They
unquestionably procured it from the now well known native
deposits around Lake Superior

Raleigh observed copper ornaments among the Indians on
the coast of the Carolinas ; and Verazzano mentions articles,
probably ornamental, of wrought copper, among the natives
which he visited in a higher latitude, " which were more es-

268 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER

teemed than gold." Granville speaks of copper among the
Indians of Virginia, which was said to have been obtained
among the Chawanooks (Shawanoes?). " It was of the color
of our copper, but softer." He endeavored to visit the place
where it was represented to be found ; but after a toilsome
journey of some days into the interior, the search was aban
doned. This was a grievous disappointment at that time, when
the minds of men were filled with visions of vast mineral wealth}
and when the value of the New World was thought to consist
in its mines. Granville thus concludes his account of his
fruitless expedition : " I have set down this voyage somewhat
particularly, to the end that it may appear unto you (as true it
is) that there wanted no good will, from the first to the last of
us, to have perfected the discovery of this mine ; for that the
discovery of a good mine, by the goodness of God, or a passage
to the South Sea, or some way to it, and nothing else, can bring
our country in request to be inhabited by our people." — ( Gran-
mile's Voy., 1585, in Pinkerton, vol. XII, p. 580.) Heriot
says, " In two towns 150 miles from the main, are found divers
small plates of copper, that are made, we are told by the in
habitants, by people who dwell farther in the country, where,
they say, are mountains and rivers which yield white grains of
metal, which are deemed to be silver. For the confirmation
whereof, at the time of our first arrival in the country, I saw
two small pieces of silver, grossly beaten, about the weight of a
tester, [an old coin about the weight of a sixpence sterling.]
hanging in the ears of a Wiroance. The aforesaid copper we
found to contain silver." — (Heriot1 s Voi/.: 1586, in Pink., vol.
XII., p. 594.) Robert Juet, in his account of Hudson's dis
covery of the river which bears his name, asserts that the
savages " had red copper tobacco pipes, and other things of cop
per, which they did wear about their necks." He makes men
tion, in another place, of " yellow copper/' as distinct from what
he terms " red copper." Both Behriri^ and Kotzebue found
copper implements in use among the Indians of the Northwest

BY THE ABORIGINES. 269

Coast. — (Behring's First Voy.,p. 85; Kotzebue, Voy.,vol. I., p.
227.) McKenzie mentions copper as being in common use
among some of the extreme Northern tribes, on the borders of
the Arctic Sea. " They point their arrows and spears with it,
and work it up into personal ornaments, such as collars, ear
rings, and bracelets, which they wear on their wrists, arms, and
legs. They have it in great abundance, and hold it in high
estimation." — (Second Journey, p. 333.) Owing to the difficulty
of reducing iron from the ore, an acquaintance with that metal
has usually been preceded by a knowledge of copper, silver,
and gold. " These three metals," says Robertson, " are found
in their perfect state in the clefts of rocks, in the sides of
mountains, or in the channels of rivers. They were accordingly
first known and applied to use. But the gross and stubborn
ore of iron, the most serviceable of all metals, and to which man
is most indebted, must twice feel the force of fire, and go
through two laborious processes, before it becomes fit for use."
Says Lucretius :

" Sed prius seris erat, quam ferri cognitus usus."

It was the difficulty of obtaining iron from the ores, or the
possession of the art of so tempering or hardening copper as to
make it answer most of the purposes to which steel is now
applied, one or both, that perpetuated the use of bronze instru
ments in Egypt, as well as in Greece and Rome, long after
those nations became acquainted with the former metal.

It may be regarded as certain, that the American aborigines,
at the period of the Discovery, were in ignorance of the uses of
iron. It is true Vespucius mentions a tribe of natives near
the mouth of the La Plata, in South America, who possessed
iron points to their arrows. It was probably obtained from
native masses in that vicinity. The inhabitants of Madagascar
obtain a part of their iron from such sources.* A late traveler

* Lieut. H. C. Flagg, Trans. Am. Association, §th Meeting, p. 40. It

270 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER

in Chile observes : " It appears that the Indians of Chile had,
at the time of their discovery, in some very rare instances, iron
blades to their lances ; which led to the erroneous supposition
that they were so far advanced in metallurgy as to be able to
reduce and refine that metal from the ores. Our surprise will
cease upon recollecting that this valuable metal already existed
naturally in South America, in the very extensive deposits of
native iron at Santiago del Estero, which has proved to be of
meteoric origin, and differing from that at Zacatecas and
Durango in Mexico, described by Humboldt, in the absence

is unnecessary to remark, that all accounts of the discovery of iron in
the mounds, or under such circumstances as to imply a date prior to the
Discovery, are sufficiently vague and unsatisfactory. The fragment of
an iron wedge, found in a rock near Salem, Washington County, Ohio,
and which has been alluded to by several writers upon American
antiquities, does not probably possess an antiquity of more than fifty
years. It is now in the possession of Dr. S. P. Hildreth, of Marietta ;
and its history, stripped of all that is not well authenticated, is simply
that it was found fastened in the cleft of a rock, and no one could tell
how it came there ! The author of the paper on American antiquities,
in the first volume of the Archaeologia Americana, states that, in a
mound at Circleville, Ohio, was found among other articles "a plate of
iron which had become an oxyde ; but before it was disturbed by the
spade, resembled a plate of cast iron. — (Archceol. Am., vol. I., p. 178.)
It is obviously no easy matter to detect iron when fully oxydized in the
earth ; and when we are obliged to base our conclusions respecting the
use of that metal, by an evidently rude people, upon such remains, if any
there be, the strictest examination should be given them ; appearances
alone should be disregarded, and conclusions, after all, drawn with
extreme caution. Whether it is likely the requisite discrimination and
judgment were exercised in this case, it is not undertaken to say. But
few masses of native iron, and these of small size and meteoric origin,
nave been found in this country ; consequently the presence of iron to
any extent among the mound-builders, can be accounted for only on the
assumption that they understood the difficult art of reducing it from the
ores, which involves a degree of knowledge, and an advance in the arts
of civilization, not attained by the Mexicans nor by the Peruvians, and
not sustained by the authenticated remains of the mounds.

BY THE ABORIGINES. 271

of earthy matter, and in not being, like them, in round masses,
but in a horizontal bed of considerable extent and variable
thickness, now for the most part covered with drifting sand,
and resting on abed of the same material." — (Mier's Travels in
Chile, etc., vol. II., p. 464.) Copper, on the other hand, seems
to have been very abundant, and much used for implements,
among all the semi-civilized nations of the continent. Colum
bus, when at Cape Honduras, was visited by a trading canoe
of Indians. Among the various articles of merchandise which
constituted their cargo, were " small hatchets, made of copper,
to hew wood, small bells and plates, crucibles to melt copper,
etc." — (Herrara, vol. I. p 260.) When the Spaniards first
entered the province of Tuspan. they found the Indians in
possession of an abundance of copper axes, which, in their
greediness, they mistook for gold, and were much mortified
upon discovering their mistake. " Each Indian," says Barnal
Diaz, " had, besides his ornaments of gold, a copper axe, which
was very highly polished, with the handle curiously carved, as
if to serve equally for an ornament as for the field of battle.
We first thought these axes were made of an inferior kind of
gold ; we therefore commenced taking them in exchange, and
in the space of two days had collected more than six hundred ;
with which we were no less rejoiced, as long as we were ignorant
of their real value, than the Indians with our glass beads." In
the list of articles exacted as an annual tribute from the various
departments of the Mexican empire, as represented by the
Mexican paintings, were " one hundred and sixty axes of cop
per" from the southern divisions.

Fig. 48 is copied from the tribute tables, and illus-
rates the form of the axes required to be paid to
the emperor. This seems to have been the usual
form, which, however, was sometimes slightly modi
fied, so as to give them a broader cutting edge. The
following example, Figs. 49 and 50, are drawings of originals

272

USE OF COPPER AND SILVER

FIG. 49.

obtained by Du Paix, and published among the plates of his
antiquarian tour. They are engraved of one fourth their actual

size.

They were part of a deposit of two hundred and seventy-six,

BY THE ABORIGINES.

273

of like character, found buried in two large earthen vases, in
the vicinity of Oxaca, and are 'of alloyed copper, and cast.
" Such," says Du Paix, " are much sought by the silversmiths,
on account of their fine alloy."

Fig. 51 is a chisel, of similar composition, found in the

FIG. 51.

vicinity of Mexico, and also figured by Du Paix. It is engraved
one fourth of the original size.

The methods in which these axes were used are well shown
in the subjoined cuts, faithfully copied from the Mexican
paintings, Figs. 52 and 53. They require no explanation

274 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER

beyond what is furnished by Clavigero, who says : " The Mex
icans made use of an axe to cut trees, which was also made of
copper, and was of the same form as those of modern times,
except that we put the handle in an eye" of the axe, while they
put the axe in an eye of the handle." Fig 54 is copied from
the Mendoza Paintings, and represents a carpenter using one
of these axes, or one very similar, adjusted, probably, so as to
answer the purpose of an adze.

In the Mexican battle paintings, we occasionally observe
weapons, the blades of which were of copper, as is shown by
their green color, and which were used something after the
manner of the battle-axe. Examples are here given, Fig. 55.

FIG. 55.

But although copper was used for such purposes, it does not
appear that it entirely substituted itself for stone ; for stone
axes, and weapons formed by inserting blades of obsidian or
itzli in solid pieces of wood, were common as late as the period
of the Spanish conquest. The instrument this formed was
called mahquahuitl, and was much dreaded by the Spaniards,
who told wonderful stories of their efficiency, affirming that a
single stroke was sufficient to cut a man through the middle, or
decapitate a horse. Figs. 56 and 57 are examples from the
paintings, and Fig 58 is copied from the monuments at Chichen
Itza, in Yucatan. The latter represents an axe, or rather,

FIG. 56. FIG. 57.

BY THE ABORIGINES.

275

FIG. 58.

weapon of war, made by inserting blades of obsidian in a handle
of wood, as above described. It will be seen by reference to
vol. I., p. 211, of the Smithsonian Contributions, that there is
reason to believe that an entirely corresponding practice pre
vailed among the mound-builders. The device is an extremely

Fro. 59.

276

USE OF COPPER AND SILVER

simple one, and seems to have been common to many rude
nations.

The copper axes of ancient Egypt closely resembled those
above described, both in form and the mode of attachment to
the handle. The illustration on the preceding page, Fig. 59,
reduced from one of Yisconti's plates, represents one of unique
and ornamental workmanship. It will be observed that it is
also lashed to the handle with thongs : differing from the prim
itive American axe only in the manner of insertion. In this
instance the broad end of the tool
is sunk in the wood

The Mexicans also used copper
to point their spears and arrows ;
although here obsidian was often
substituted. Fig. 60 is a represen-

FIG. 60.

tation of a short javelin, which we
find of frequent occurrence in the
paintings, and which seems to have
been used only in close combat.
The long javelin, or that which was
thrown from the hand, is well shown
in Fig. 61, which exhibits the man-

Fio. 61.

BY THE ABORIGINES. 277

ner in which it was thrown, and also the xuiatlatli, or instru
ment used in throwing it, and by means of which it was
sent with greater accuracy and force than could otherwise
be attained. The gods are almost always represented, in
the mythological paintings, holding the xuiatlatli in their
hands. It is often fancifully ornamented with tassels and
feathers.

The Peruvians used copper for precisely the same purposes
with the Mexicans. Says La Vega, " They make their arms,
knives, carpenters' tools, large pins, hammers for their forges,
and their mattocks, of copper ; for which reason they seek it in
preference to gold." And Ulloa adds, " The copper axes of
the Peruvians differ very little in shape from ours ; and it
appears that these were the implements with which they per
formed most of their works. They are of various shapes and
sizes ; the edge of some is more circular than others, and some
have a concave edge." — (vol. I., p. 483.)

The knowledge of alloying was possessed by both the Mexi
cans and Peruvians, whereby they were enabled to make in
struments of copper of sufficient hardness to answer the pur
poses for which steel is now deemed essential. Their works in
stone and wood, whether in dressing the huge blocks of por
phyry composing some of their structures, or in sculpturing
the unique statues which are found scattered over the seats of
their ancient cities, were carried on entirely with such instru
ments, or with still ruder ones of obsidian and other hard
stones.

The metal used as an alloy was tin ; and the various Peru
vian articles subjected to an analysis, are found to contain from
three to six per cent, of that metal. The chisel analyzed by
Humboldt contained copper 94, tin 6. — (Res., vol. I., p. 260.)
Figure 62 is a reduced sketch of a copper knife found in Peru,
by J. H. Blake, Esq., of Boston. It has about four per cent,
of tin. This gentleman informs me, that " the knives, gravers,

278 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER

and other implements found by myself in Peru, contain from
three and a half to four per cent, of tin, which is sufficient to
give them a very considerable degree of hardness.* The knives
which I send you were found about the person of a mummy
which I took from an ancient cemetery near Arico. Various
household articles were found with it ; but these were the only
ones of metal, except a medal of silver suspended around the
neck. The chisels or gravers are pointed at one end, with a
cutting edge at the broad part. They were found at various
places in the northern part of Peru. At the ancient city of
Atacama, I found several hoes of copper, shaped very much like
the i grubbing-hoes ' to be found in our warehouses."

Figure 63 is a reduced sketch of an ancient Peruvian spear
head, of copper, found in a Peruvian huaca or tumulus, near
Lima, whence it was brought by the late Dr. Marmaduke Bur
roughs, in 1826, and by him presented to Dr. S. G. Morton, of
Philadelphia, in whose possession it now is. It is somewhat
flattened, and regularly four-sided from the point to within
a third of the distance from the larger end, where it be-

* The Indians of Chile, previous to the discovery by the Spaniards,
made use of a kind of bronze metal, found native in the country, which
is an alloy of copper, zinc, and antimony, called campanil by the Span
iards. From this they formed their cutting instruments.— (Mier's Trav.t
vol. II., p. 464.)

BY THE ABORIGINES.

comes cylindrical. This part is hollow, for the
reception of the handle. The metal is not hard
ened, and is now covered with a green oxyde.
The length of the weapon is seventeen inches,
and the diameter, at the larger end, one inch and
one-tenth.

Figure 64 is a full-size engraving of one of the
arrow-points discovered with a skeleton near Fall
River, Massachusetts, in the year 1831. With this
skeleton were found a corroded plate of brass,
supposed to have constituted a breastplate, and
a number of rude tubes of the same metal, com
posing a sort of belt or cincture. The arrow
points are two inches in length, and one and one-
third inches broad at the base. This skeleton
attracted a good deal of attention at the time, and
was supposed to lend some sanction to the then
popular theory of the early discovery and settle
ment of the coast of New England by the North
men. An analysis of the compound metal of
which the relics were composed, was made by
Berzelius, under the direction of the Royal So
ciety of Antiquaries of Denmark. The result
of the analysis was published by that learned
body, in the following comparative table :

FIG 63.

FIG. 64.

280 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER

Copper. Zinc. Tin. Lead. Iron.

Brass from Fall Kiver, . . . 70.29 28.03 0.91 0.74 0.03

Old Danish, 67.13 20.39 9.24 3.39 0.11

Modern Brass, 70.16 27.45 0.79 0.20 —

It will be seen by the table, that the metallic relics found at
Fall River bear in their composition a suspicious resemblance
to modern brass. They certainly differ widely, in this respect,
from any of the alloys of copper found elsewhere on the con
tinent. Without alluding to the rudeness of the workmanship
exhibited by the Fall River relics — a rudeness entirely incon
sistent with that stage of advancement indicated by a know
ledge of smelting and alloying the metals — the fact that the
skeleton accompanying them was found buried, after the Indian
mode, in a sitting posture, and enveloped in bark, places in a
very strong light the probability that the burial was made
subsequent to the first settlement of New England, in 1625,
and that the relics were of native manufacture, from sheets or
plates of brass obtained from the early colonists. This proba
bility is further sustained, by the circumstance that a portion
of the wood attached to the arrows was still preserved, as was
also a large proportion of the bark envelope of the skeleton, at
the time of its discovery ; which could hardly be the case, if its
interment had been made as early as the tenth century, which
is the period assigned to the Scandinavian visits. It cannot
be claimed that the preservative properties of the salts of the
copper could have more than a very local application or influ
ence.

And while upon this point, it may be mentioned that Wood,
in his "New England Prospect," published in 1634, (p. 90,)
distinctly states that the Indians obtained brass of the English
for their ornaments and arrow-heads, the last of which, he adds,
" they cut in the shape of a heart and triangle, and fastened in a
slender piece of wood, six or eight inches long" in a manner,
according to the description, precisely similar to that observed
in the articles found with the Fall River skeleton. If any

BY THE ABORIGINES.

further evidence were needed to establish the opinions already
advanced, it might be found in the fact that, a few years ago,
in the town of Medford, near Boston, in Massachusetts, a skele
ton was exhumed, accompanying which were found some flint
arrow-heads, and some brass arrow-points, identical with those
discovered at Fall River, together with a knife of the English
manufacture of two hundred years ago. Fig. 65 is a full-sized

FIG. 65.

engraving of the arrow-point in question, which is now in the
possession of the author.

It has already been suggested that the shore of Lake
Superior is the probable locality whence the copper used by
the aborigines of, at least, the Eastern and Middle States was
obtained. This suggestion is rendered more than probable by
the fact that abundant traces of aboriginal mining have been
discovered there in the course of recent explorations. Some of
the more productive veins in the " Copper Region" seem to
have been anciently worked to a considerable extent. The
vein belonging to the " Minnesota Company" exhibits evidence
of having been worked for a distance of two miles. The an
cient operations are indicated by depressions or open cuts on
the course of the vein. Upon excavating these, ample proofs
of their artificial origin are discovered, consisting of broken
implements of various kinds, stone axes, hammers, etc. Traces

USE OF COPPER AND SILVER

of fire are also frequent. Some of the excavations are found
to have extended to the depth of thirty feet. In the mine of
the particular company above named, covered by fifteen feet
of accumulated soil, and beneath trees not less than four hun
dred years old, was found a mass of pure copper, weighing
11,537 Ibs.j from which every particle of the rock had been
removed. It had been supported by skids, and was surrounded
by traces of the fire which had probably been used to disen
gage the rock. Here, too, were found various rude implements
of copper.

At the Copper Falls and Eagle River, as at the Vulcan and
other mines, the ancient shafts are frequently discovered. Pro
fessor W. W. Mather, the eminent geologist, in a private letter,
referring to the two mines first named, says : " On a hill, south
of the Copper Falls Mine, is an excavation, several feet in
depth and several rods in length, extending along the course
of the river. Fragments of rock, etc., thrown out of the excava
tion, are piled up along its sides, the whole covered with soil,
and overgrown with bushes and trees. On removing the
accumulations from the excavation, stone axes of large size,
made of green-stone, and shaped to receive withe handles, are
found. Some large round green-stone masses, that had ap
parently been used for sledges, were also found. They had
round holes bored in them to the depth of several inches, which
seemed to have been designed for wooden plugs, to which withe
handles might be attached, so that several men could swing
them with sufficient force to break the rock and the projecting
masses of copper. Some of them were broken, and some of the
projecting ends of rock exhibited marks of having been battered
in the manner here suggested."

The great Ontonagon mass of virgin copper, now deposited
at Washington, when found, exhibited marks of having had
considerable portions cut from it : and the ground around it
was strewed with fragments of stone axes, which had been
broken in endeavors to detach portions of the mass. It is not

BY THE ABORIGINES.

impossible that this mass was one of those which had been
brought to the surface by the ancient miners.*

The questions naturally arise, By whom were these ancient
mining operations carried on ? and to what era may they be
referred 1 Without noticing the improbable suggestion, that
the various excavations which have been discovered are due to
the French, (who, it is well known, were early acquainted with
the mineral riches of the Northwest,) we may find a satisfactory
answer to the first of these questions, if not to the last, in the
character of the deposits which recent explorations have dis
closed from the mounds of the West. Among the multitude
of relics of art found buried upon the ancient altars, or beside
the bones of the dead, articles of copper are of common occur
rence. It is sometimes found in native masses, but generally
worked into articles of use or ornament. I have taken from
the mounds axes, well wrought from single pieces, weighing

* Since the above was written, the subjoined additional facts have
been published in the Lake Superior Journal newspaper, of the date of
September 25, 1850 :

" We have been shown by Charles Whittlesey, Esq., of the Ontonagon
Mine, a copper arrow-head, and a piece of human skull and other bones,
which have lately been found in the ancient Indian excavations on the
Ontonagon River. The arrow-head is now about two inches in length,
and seems to have had originally a socket, though but part of it remains.
Several chisels, or instruments resembling chisels, having sockets like
the common carpenter's chisel, and small gads or wedges, have also
been found at the Minnesota Mine.

" But the greatest curiosity we have seen in the way of these articles
is a stick of oak timber lately taken out of one of the ancient ' pits,' or
shafts, at the Minnesota Mine, twenty-seven feet below the surface. It
is a small tree, about ten feet in length, and eight or ten inches in
diameter, having short limbs two feet apart, and at nearly right angles
with one another ; and on this account, and from its standing nearly
upright, it is supposed to have been used as a ladder by the ancient
miners. In this shaft and around and over this stick, were rocks and
earth, and large trees were growing over it. Many centuries must have
elapsed since that ancient ladder was placed there.

284 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER

upwards of two pounds each. They are symmetrical, corre
sponding very nearly in shape with the Mexican and Peruvian
axes. Some are double-bladed, others gouge-shaped, and evi
dently designed to be used as adzes. Besides these, chisels,
graving tools, and a great variety of ornaments, bracelets, gor
gets, beads, etc., etc., composed of this metal, have been dis
covered. Some of the ornaments are covered with silver,
beaten to great thinness, and so closely wrapped around the
copper that many persons have supposed that the ancient people
understood the difficult art of plating.

Some years ago, a mass of native copper, weighing upwards
of twenty pounds, was found upon the banks of the Scioto
River, near Chilicothe, in Ohio. Large portions had evidently
been cut from it. The discovery of these native masses, not
to mention the amount of the manufactured copper, implying a
large original supply, points pretty certainly to the shores of
Lake Superior as the locality whence the metal was obtained.
There are other circumstances, still more conclusive, and which,
taken in connection with the traces of ancient mining in the
mineral region, leave no room to doubt that the race of the
mounds obtained their supplies of copper from that direction.
It is well known that while some of the Lake Superior copper
is almost perfectly pure, a part is alloyed with silver in various
proportions, and some is found having crystals of silver attached
to it — a peculiar mechanico-chemical combination, known to exist
nowhere except in this region. This characteristic combination
has been observed in some of the specimens, both worked and
unworked, found in the mounds, and enables us to identify
fully their primitive locality. The great industry and skill
which the mound-builders displayed in the numerous and often
gigantic monuments which they have left us at the West,
warrant us in ascribing the ancient excavations, etc., in the
mineral region to them. The Indian hunter is proverbially
averse to labor ; and we have no instance of the Indians under
taking works of this extent. Still, it cannot be doubted that

BY THE ABORIGINES. 285

they also obtained copper from this region. Indeed, we have
direct evidence of the fact ; but it is probable that they pro
cured it only in small quantities, when it was found exposed at
the surface, or on the banks of streams. Alexander Henry ?
who penetrated to Lake Superior at the period of the second
French war, assures us that the Indians obtained copper here,
which they " made into bracelets, spoons," etc. — ( Travels, p.
195.) As we have seen, the early explorers on the coasts of
New England, New York, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Florida,
among whom we may mention Hudson, Verrazano, Raleigh,
Heriot, Ribaude, De Soto, all concur in saying that the Indians
had copper in small quantities among them, which they worked
into pipes and ornaments. De Soto found copper hatchets
among some of the tribes along the Gulf, which they professed
to have obtained from " a province called Chisca, far toward
the North."

All the copper found in the mounds appears to have been
worked in a cold state ; and although the axes and other
instruments appear to be harder than the copper of commerce,
they have been found, upon analysis, to be destitute of alloy.
The superior hardness which they possess over the unworked
metal, is doubtless due to the hammering to which they have
been subjected. Some of the sculptures in porphyry, and
other hard stones found in the mounds, exhibit traces of having
been cut ; but as they now turn the edge of the best tempered
knife, we are at a loss to conjecture how they were so elabo
rately and delicately worked. The lack of cutting implements,
among most rude people, is partially met by various contriv
ances, the most common of which is attrition, or rubbing or
grinding on hard stones. It was thus the stone axes, etc., of
the early Indians were slowly and laboriously brought into
shape. It however needs but a single glance at the mound
sculptures to convince the observer that such rude means are
wholly inadequate to the production of works possessing so
much delicacy of execution.

286 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER

The Mexicans and Peruvians were wholly unacquainted with
the use of iron ; and their carvings, etc., were all wrought with
copper tools. They, however, contrived to harden them with
an alloy of from three to seven per cent, of tin. I have some
of their implements in my possession, which answer a very
good cutting purpose. It nevertheless seems incomprehensible
how their extensive works in granite, porphyry, and other
obstinate materials, could be carried on with such aids. The
Egyptians, although not ignorant of iron, were compelled, by a
variety of circumstances, to use copper tools, and with these
most of their gigantic labors were effected. They must of
necessity have had some means of hardening the metals ; yet
it is a singular fact, that with the exception of a few bronze
weapons of probably a comparatively late date, the chisels and
other implements found in the monuments and at the quarries
are pure copper.

USE OF SILVER BY THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. — Granville,
as we have seen in the quotation from his voyage on page 177,
speaks of finding pieces of silver among the Virginia Indians,
" grossly beaten," and used for purposes of ornament. Having
shown that the copper found among the Indian tribes of the
north was probably obtained from the native deposits around
Lake Superior, we have little difficulty in accounting for the
presence among them of small quantities of silver, derived
from the same localit}^ where it also exists in a native form.
That the silver in use among the mound-builders was princi
pally if not wholly obtained there, seems incontestible. In no
instance does it appear to have been smelted.

A variety of silver ornaments were discovered some years
ago in one of the mounds at Marietta, Ohio, under very singular
circumstances, and in a remarkable connection. The circum
stances have been detailed by the accurate pen of Dr. S. P.
HILDRETH, in a communication to the President of the Ameri
can Antiquarian Society, dated " Marietta, Nov. 3, 1819."

" In removing the earth composing an ancient mound in the

BY THE ABORIGINES. 287

streets of Marietta, on the margin of the plain, near the fortifi
cations, several curious articles were discovered. They appear
to have been buried with the body of the person to whose
memory the mound was erected.

" Lying immediately over, or on the forehead of the body,
were found three large circular bosses, or ornaments for a
sword-belt or a buckler : they are composed of copper overlaid
with a thick plate of silver. The fronts are slightly convex,
with a depression like a cup in the centre, and measure two
inches and a quarter across the face of each. On the back
side, opposite the depressed portion, is a copper rivet or nail,
around which are two separate plates, by which they were
fastened to the leather. Two small pieces of the leather were
found lying between the plates of one of these bosses ; they
resemble the skin of a mummy, and seem to have been pre
served by the salts of copper. The copper plates are nearly
reduced to an oxyde, or rust. The silver looks quite black, but
is not much corroded, and in rubbing is quite brilliant. Two
of these are yet entire 5 the third one is so much wasted that
it dropped in pieces in removing it from the earth. Around
the rivets of one of them is a small quantity of flax or hemp, in
a tolerable state of preservation. Near the side of the body
was found a plate of silver, which appears to have been the
upper part of a sword-scabbard ; it is six inches in length and
two inches in breadth, and weighs one ounce. It has no orna
ments or figures, but has three longitudinal ridges, which
probably corresponded with the edges or ridges of the sword ;
it seems to have been fastened to the scabbard by three or
four rivets, the holes of which remain in the silver.

" Two or three broken pieces of a copper tube were also
found filled with iron rust. These pieces, from their appearance,
composed the lower end of the scabbard, near the point of the
sword. No signs of the sword itself were discovered, except
the appearance of rust above mentioned. Near the feet was
found a piece of copper weighing three ounces [now in the Muse-

288 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER

um of the Antiquarian Society of Worcester]. From its shape
it appears to have been used as a plumb, or for an ornament, as
near one of the ends is a circular crease or groove, for tying a
thread : it is round, two inches and a half in length, one inch
in diameter at the centre, and half an inch at each end. It is
composed of small pieces of native copper pounded together ;
and in the cracks between the pieces are stuck several pieces
of silver, one nearly the size of a half-dime. A piece of red
ochre or paint, and a piece of iron ore [hematite] which had the
appearance of having been partially vitrified [polished .?], were
also found.

" The body of the person here buried was laid upon the
surface of the ground, with his face upwards, and his feet
pointing to the south-west. From the appearance of several
pieces of charcoal and bits of partially burned fossil coal, and
the black color of the earth, it would seem that the funeral
obsequies had been celebrated by fire ; and while the ashes
were yet hot and smoking, a circle of these flat stones had been
laid around and over the body. The circular covering was
about eight feet in diameter ; and the stones yet look black, as
if stained by fire and smoke. This circle of stones seems to
have been the nucleus over which the mound was formed, as
immediately over them is heaped the common earth of the
adjacent plain. At the time of opening it, the height was 6
feetj and diameter between 30 and 40. It has every appear
ance of being as old as any in the neighborhood, and was, at
the first settlement of Marietta, covered with large trees. It
seems to have been made for this single personage, as the re
mains of one skeleton only were discovered. The bones were
much decayed, and many of them crumbled to dust on exposure
to the air."

Engravings of the silver-plated discs and also of the embossed
silver plate, supposed by Dr. Hildreth to have been a sword
ornament, are herewith presented. These articles have been
critically examined, and it is beyond doubt that the copper

BY THE ABORIGINES.

Fio. 66.

" bosses " are absolutely plated, not simply overlaid, with silver.
Between the copper and the silver exists a connection, such as,
it seems to me, could only be produced by heat ; and if it is
admitted that these are genuine remains of the mound->
builders, it must, at the same time, be admitted that they
possessed the difficult art of plating one metal upon another.
There is but one alternative, viz., that they had occasional or
constant intercourse with a people advanced in the arts, from
whom these articles were obtained. Again, if Dr. Hildreth is
not mistaken, oxydized iron, or steel, was also discovered in
connection with the above remains ; from which also follows, as a
necessity upon the previous assumption, the extraordinary con
clusion that the mound-builders were acquainted with the use
of iron — the conclusion being, of course, subject to the improba
ble alternative already mentioned.

Leading, therefore, as they do, to such extraordinary con
clusions, it is of the utmost importance that every fact and
circumstance connected with these remains should be narrowly
examined. If there is a reasonable way of accounting for their
presence, under the circumstances above described, without
involving us in these conclusions, unsustained as they are by
collateral facts, we are justified upon every recognized rule of

13

r

290 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER

evidence in adopting it as the nearest approximation to the
truth.

The existing tribes of Indians, it has been demonstrated,
recently and remotely, often buried in the mounds, placing the
arms and ornaments, in short, whatever was valued by the
possessor while living, in the grave with him at his death. It
has been shown that in some instances they opened the mounds
to the depth of six or seven feet, and buried at or below their
bases. — (Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, pp. 146,
147, 149.) It has been shown, also, that partial burial by fire
was occasionally practised by them, or by races succeeding the
builders of the mounds. That it was a common custom among
the Indians to cover their dead with stones, is also well known.
The occurrence of these remains in the position above described,
does not, therefore, necessarily establish that they belonged to
the race of the mounds.

The French as early as in the seventeenth century, had visited
the mouth of the Muskingum, as is shown by the lead tablet
which they left there in token of having taken possession of the
country in behalf of their nation. A notice of this plate, from
the pen of Governor Clinton, is published in the second volume
of the Archseologia Americana. Previous to this date, a very
general intercourse had sprung up between the Europeans on
the Atlantic coast, the St. Lawrence and the Lakes, and the
Indians to the westward of the Alleghanies, in the valley of the
Ohio and its tributaries. Nothing is, therefore, more likely than
that the arms and the general martial equipments of the
European adventurers were occasionally obtained by the In
dians, either as presents for purposes of conciliation, by pur
chase, or from the bodies of the slain in their frequent encounters
with the whites. By whatever means they came into their
hands, it is certain they would be highly prized by the pos
sessor, and deposited with him at his death.

The discs, described in the extract, and which, it should be

BY THE ABORIGINES

291

remarked, are very different in style and workmanship from
the rude articles elsewhere obtained from the mounds, are al
most identical in shape with the plated ornaments which we
observe upon belts and military accoutrements of the present
day. The conjectures of Dr. Hildreth respecting both these
and the embossed silver plate are probably not far from correct,
and are measurably sustained by the oxyde of iron found with
them. It seems, however, somewhat remarkable that no more
distinct traces of the sword blade, if such there was, accom
panying these relics, were observed ; if, as it is announced,
they were deposited by the Indians, after the commencement
of European intercourse,

Any conclusion we may make, respecting these relics, hypo-
thetically or otherwise, is beset with difficulties, and all that
is claimed for the hypothesis here indicated is, that it is
less unreasonable than any other. If the circumstances under
which the relics were found do not sustain, they certainly do
not necessarily invalidate it. It is, moreover, directly sup
ported by the circumstance that other remains of analogous
character and of undoubted European origin have been dis
covered in mounds and elsewhere, in the same vicinity. Among
these may be mentioned a silver-plated frontlet of a military
cap, silver cups, gilded on the interior, etc.

FIG. 67.

Among the ornaments taken from mound No. 21, in " Mound
City" — (Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, Plate
XIX.) were several star-shaped ornaments, of one of which an

292

USE OF COPPER AND SILVER, ETC

engraving is given on the preceding page, Fig. 67. It seems to
have been made of shells, over which thin slips of copper, and
afterward slips of silver were closely wrapped, so as to resemble
plating.

Fio. 68. Copper Beads from the Mounds.

SUPPLEMENT,

ON

THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

OF THE

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS; INCLOSURES FOR DEFENCE; SA
CRED INCLOSURES ; MOUNDS OF SEPULTURE ; OF SAC
RIFICE, ETC., ETC.; IMPLEMENTS; ORNAMENTS;
SCULPTURES, ETC., ETC.

VARIOUS references have been made, in the preceding pages,
to the Ancient Monuments, and the great system of Earth
works of the Mississippi valley, of which it has hitherto been
supposed the aboriginal monuments of Western New York
constituted a part. It will not, therefore, be uninteresting,
nor inappropriate, to present here a brief outline of the cha
racter of the former remains, with the single observation that
those who may desire further information respecting them will
find it in the first volume of the " Smithsonian Contribution to
Knowledge," entitled " Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi
Valley."

These monuments consist, for the most part, of elevations
and embankments of earth and stone, erected with great labor
and manifest design. In connection with these, more or less
intimate, are found various minor relics of art, consisting of
ornaments and implements of many kinds, some of them com
posed of metal, but most of stone. They spread over a vast
extent of country. They are found on the Alleghany, in the
western part of the State of Pennsylvania, on the east ; and
extend thence westwardly along the southern shore of Lake

294 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

Erie, and through Michigan and Wisconsin to Iowa and the
Nebraska territory, on the west.* We have no record of their
occurrence above the lakes, nor higher than the falls of the
Mississippi. Carver mentions some on the shores of Lake
Pepin ; and Lewis and Clarke saw them on the Missouri river,
1000 miles above its junction with the Mississippi. They are
found all over the intermediate country, and along the valley
of the Mississippi to the Gulf from Texas to Florida, and
extend, in diminished numbers, into South Carolina. They
occur in great numbers in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin,
Missouri, Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, Missis
sippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, and Texas. They are found
in less numbers, in the western portions of Pennsylvania, and
Virginia ; as well as in Michigan, Iowa, and in North and
South Carolina. In short, they occupy the entire basin of the
Mississippi and its tributaries, as also the fertile plains along
the Gulf.

It is not to be understood that these remains are dispersed
equally over the area here defined. They are mainly confined
to the valleys of the streams, occupying the level, fertile ter
races, and seldom occurring very far back from them. -

* It is a fact not generally known, that there is an abundance of
tumuli or mounds in the Territory of Oregon. We are not informed,
however, that there are any inclosures or other works of like character
with those usually accompanying the mounds of the Mississippi valley,
nor whether the mounds of Oregon are generally disseminated over
that territory. The only reference we have to them is contained in a
paragraph in the Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition :

" We soon reached the Bute Prairies, which are extensive and covered
with tumuli or small mounds, at regular distances asunder. As far as I
can learn, there is no tradition among the natives concerning them.
They are conical mounds, thirty feet in diameter, about six or seven
feet above the level, and many thousands in number. Being anxious to
ascertain if they contained any relics, I subsequently visited these
prairies, and opened three of the mounds, but found nothing in them
but a pavement of round stones." — U. S. E. E., vol. iv., p. 313.

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 295

Their number is well calculated to excite surprise, and has
been adduced in support of the hypothesis — which has not
been without its advocates — that they are most, if not all of
them, natural formations, "the results of diluvial action,"
modified perhaps, in a few instances, but never erected by man.
Of course no such hypothesis was ever advanced by any indi
vidual who had enjoyed the opportunity of examining these
remains for himself.

Some estimate may be formed of their great abundance, in
certain portions of the country, by an inspection of Map No. 1,
in the first volume of the " Smithsonian Contributions to Know
ledge," which exhibits a section of twelve miles of the Scioto
valley. It will be observed that not less than ten large groups
of earth-works occur within the space designated, besides which
there is a large number of mounds and lesser monuments.
Twenty-four of these mounds are found within a single inclo-
sure three miles above the city of Chillicothe. Two large
works in the vicinity of this, have each not far from two miles
of embankment, and inclose little less than one hundred acres.
Nearly one hundred inclosures and five hundred mounds are
found in Ross county. Ohio, alone ; and the ancient works of
the State may be safely estimated at ten thousand mounds,
and one thousand or fifteen hundred inclosures. of all sizes.
Many of them are, of course, small, but cannot be omitted in
an enumeration.

Nor is their magnitude less a matter of surprise than their
numbers. Lines of embankment, varying in height from five
to fifteen feet, and inclosing areas of from one to fifty acres,
are common ; while inclosures of one hundred or two hundred
acres area are far from infrequent. Occasional works are
found, embracing not less than five or six hundred acres.* The
magnitude of the area inclosed is not, however, always an index

* Lewis and Clarke describe one on the Missouri river which they
estimated to contain six hundred acres.

290 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

of the amount of the labor expended in the construction of
these works, or of the length of the embankment raised. A
fortified hill, in Highland county, Ohio, (A. M. Plate Y.) has
one mile and five-eighths of heavy embankment ; yet it incloses
an area of only about forty acres. A similar work, on the
Little Miami river, in Warren county, Ohio, (A. M. Plate
VII.) has upwards of four miles of embankment, yet incloses but
little upwards of one hundred acres. The group of works at
the mouth of the Scioto river at Portsmouth has an aggregate
of at least twenty miles of embankment ; yet the amount of
land embraced within the walls does not exceed two hundred
acres

The mounds are of every conceivable dimension, from those
of but a few feet in height and a few yards in diameter, to
those which, like the celebrated one at the mouth of Grave
Creek, in Virginia, (A. M. Fig. 56,) measure one thousand
feet in circumference by seventy feet in height ; or, like the
truncated pyramid at Cahokia, in Illinois, (A. M. Fig. 60,) rise
to the altitude of nearly one hundred feet, and measure half a
mile in circumference at the base, with a level summit of several
acres area. Their usual dimensions are, however, considerably
less than in the examples here given. The larger number range
from six to thirty feet in height, by forty to one hundred feet base.

These constructions are composed of earth or stone, taken up
on the spot, or brought from localities more or less remote ;
though a combination of these materials, in the same work, is
by no means rare. In the absence of ditches interior or
exterior to the embankments, pits or dug holes, from which the
earth for their construction was taken, are generally visible
near by. These are sometimes very broad and deep, and occa
sionally quite symmetrical in shape. In the vicinity of large
mounds, such excavations are also common.*

* These are the " wells" of Mr. Atwater and other writers on Ameri
can Antiquities.

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.

297

A large, perhaps the larger, portion of these works are regu
lar in outline, the square and the circle predominating. Some
are parallelograms, some ellipses, others polygons, regular and
irregular. The regular works are almost invariably erected on
level river-terraces, great care having evidently been taken to
select those least broken. The irregular works are those which
partake most of the character of defences, and are usually made
to conform to the nature of the ground upon which they are
situated — running along the brows of hills, or cutting off the
approaches to strong natural positions. The square and the
circle often occur in combination, frequently communicating
with each other or with irregular works, directly or by avenues
consisting of parallel lines of embankment. Detached paral
lels are frequent. The mounds are usually simple cones in
form, but they are sometimes truncated, and occasionally ter
raced, with graded or winding ascents to their summits. Some
are elliptical, others pyriform, and others squares or parallelo
grams, with flanking terraces. Besides these are others, most
common in the extreme north-west, which assume the forms of
animals and reptiles. Another variety of remains are the
causeways or " roads," and the graded descents to rivers and
streams, or from one terrace to another.

As already remarked, these remains occur mainly in the
valleys of the Western rivers and streams. The alluvial ter
races, or " river bottoms," as they are popularly termed, were
the favorite sites of the builders. The principal monuments
are found where these " bottoms" are most extended, and where
the soil is most fertile and easy of cultivation. At the junc
tion of streams, where the valleys are usually broadest and
most favorable for their erection, some of the largest and most
singular remains are found. The works at Marietta, at the
junction of the Muskingum with the Ohio ; at the mouth of
Grave Creek ; at Portsmouth, the mouth of the Scioto ; and at
the mouth of the Great Miami, are instances in point. Occa
sional works are found on the hill-tops, overlooking the valleys,
13*

298 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

or at a little distance from them ; but these are manifestly, in
most instances, works of defence or last resort, or in some way
connected with warlike purposes. And it is worthy of remark,
that the sites selected for settlements, towns, and cities, by the
invading Europeans, are often those which were the especial
favorites of the mound-builders, and the seats of their heaviest
population. Marietta, Newark, Portsmouth, Chillicothe, Cir-
cleville, and Cincinnati, in Ohio ; Frankfort in Kentucky ; and
St. Louis in Missouri, may be mentioned in confirmation of
the remark. The centres of population are now where they
were at the period when the mysterious race of the mounds
flourished.*

The monuments throughout the entire Mississippi valley
possess certain grand points of resemblance, going to establish
a common origin. Whether they were contemporaneous in
their erection, or constructed by a people slowly migrating from
one portion of the valley to the other, under the pressure of
hostile neighbors or the inducements of a more genial climate,
are questions open to inquiry, and which proper investigations
may satisfactorily answer. It is quite certain, however, and
this fact is of importance in the consideration of these ques
tions, that the mounds increase in magnitude and regularity,
if not in numbers, as we go down the Mississippi toward the
Gulf. And although between the monuments of the North
and the South there is a marked contrast, in many respects ;
yet it would be impossible to tell, so gradually do they merge
into each other, where one series terminates and the other be
gins. It is not impossible that future investigations may show
an imperceptible transition from the more regular earth-struc-

* " The most dense ancient population existed in precisely the places
where the most crowded future population will exist in ages to come.
The appearance of a series of mounds generally indicates the contiguity
of rich and level lands, easy communication, fish, game, and the most
favorable adjacent positions." — Flint.

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.

299

tures of the lower Mississippi, to the symmetrical and imposing
stone teocalli of Mexico.

The remains of which we are speaking may be divided into
two grand classes, viz., INCLOSURES, bounded by parapets, cir-
cumvallations or walls, and simple Tumuli or MOUNDS.* They
constitute together a single system of works ; but, for purposes
which will satisfactorily appear, it is preferred to classify them
as above. These grand classes resolve themselves into other
subordinate divisions ; Indosures for Defence, Sacred and Miscel
laneous Inclosures ; Mounds of Sacrifice, Temple Mounds, Mounds
of Sepulture, etc.

INCLOSURES.

The Inclosures, or, as they are familiarly known throughout
the West, " Forts," constitute a very important and interesting
class of remains. Their dimensions, and the popular opinion
as to their purposes, attract to them more particularly the at
tention of observers. As a consequence, most that has been
written upon our antiquities relates to them. Quite a number
have been surveyed and described by different individuals, at
different times ; but no systematic examination of a sufficient
number to justify any general conclusion as to their origin and
purposes has hitherto been made. Accordingly we have had
presented as many different conclusions as there have been in
dividual explorers ; one maintaining that all the inclosures
were intended for defence, while another persists that none
could possibly have been designed for any such purpose. A
sufficiently extended investigation would have shown, however,
that while certain works possess features demonstrating incon-
testably a warlike origin, others were connected with the super
stitions of the builders, or designed for purposes not readily ap
parent in our present state of knowledge concerning them.

* I use the term mound, for obvious reasons, in a technical sense, as
synonymous with tumulus or barrow, and as distinct from embankment,
rampart, etc.

300 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

It has already been remarked that the square and the circle,
separate or in combination, were favorite figures with the mound-
builders ; and a large proportion of their works in the Scioto
valley and in Ohio are of these forms. Most of the circular
works are small, varying from 250 to 300 feet in diameter,
while others are a mile or more in circuit. Some stand isolated,
but most in connection with one or more mounds, of greater or
less dimensions, or in connection with other more complicated
works. Wherever the circles occur, if there be a fosse or ditch,
it is almost invariably interior to the parapet. Instances are
frequent where no ditch is discernible, and where it is evident
that the earth composing the parapet was brought from a dis
tance or taken up evenly from the surface. In the square or
irregular works, if there be a fosse at all, it is exterior to the
embankment, except in the case of fortified hills, when the
earth, for the best of reasons, is usually thrown from the interior.
These facts are not without their importance in determining the
character and purpose of these remains. Another fact bearing
directly upon the degree of knowledge possessed by the builders
is, that many if not most of the circular works are perfect circles,
and that many of the rectangular works are accurate squares.
This fact has been demonstrated, in numerous instances, by
careful admeasurements, and has been remarked in cases where
the works embrace an area of many acres, and where the em
bankments or circumvallations are a mile or upwards in extent.

WORKS OF DEFENCE.

Those works, which are incontestably defensive, usually occupy
strong natural positions. To understand fully their character
and capacity for the purpose assigned to them, it is necessary
to notice briefly the predominant features of the country in
which they occur.

The valley of the Mississippi, from the base of the Alleghanies
to the ranges of the Rocky Mountains, is a vast sedimentary

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.

301

basin, and owes its general aspect to the powerful action of
water. Its rivers have worn their valleys deep in a vast origi
nal plain, leaving in their gradual subsidence broad terraces,
marking the different eras of their history. The edges of the
table lands, bordering on the valleys, are cut by a thousand
ravines, presenting bluff headlands and high hills with level
summits, sometimes connected by narrow isthmuses with the
original table, and sometimes entirely detached. The sides of
these elevations are always steep and difficult of ascent, in some
cases precipitous and absolutely inaccessible. The natural
strength of such positions, and their susceptibility of defence,
would certainly suggest them as the citadels of a rude people,
having hostile neighbors or pressed by foreign invaders. Accord
ingly, we are not surprised at often finding these heights occu
pied by strong and complicated works, the design of which is
indicated no less by their position than by their peculiarities of
construction. In such cases it is always to be observed that
great care has been exercised in their selection, and that they
possess peculiar strength and adaptation for the purposes to
which they were applied. While rugged and steep on most
sides, they have one or more points of comparatively easy ap
proach, in the protection of which the utmost skill of the builders
has been expended. They are guarded by double overlapping
walls, or a series of them, having sometimes an accompanying
mound, designed perhaps as a " look-out," and corresponding to
the barbican in the British system of defence, of the middle
ages. The usual defence is a simple parapet thrown up along
and a little below the brow of the hill, varying in height and
solidity as the declivity is more or less steep and difficult of
access.

Other defensive works occupy the peninsulas formed by the
streams, or cut off the bluff points formed by their junction
with each other. In such cases a fosse and wall are carried
across the isthmus, or diagonally from the bank of one stream
to that of the other. In certain instances the wall is double,

302 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

and extends along the bank of the stream for some distance
inwardly, as if designed to prevent an enemy from turning the
flank of 'the defence.

To understand clearly the nature of the works last men
tioned, it should be remembered that the banks of the Western
rivers are always steep, and, where these works are located,
invariably high ; the banks of the various terraces are also
steep, ranging from ten to thirty and more feet in height. The
rivers are constantly shifting their channels, and frequently cut
their way through all the intermediate up to the earliest
formed or highest terrace, presenting bold banks, inaccessibly
steep, and from fifty to one hundred feet high. At such points,
from which the river has in some instances receded to the
distance of half a mile or more, works of this description are
oftenest found.

And it is a fact of much importance and worthy of special
note, that within the scope of a pretty extended observation, no
work of any kind has been found occupying the latest formed
terrace.* This terrace alone, except at periods of extraordi
nary freshets, is subject to overflow. The formation of each
terrace constitutes a sort of semi-geological era in the history
of the valley ; and the fact that none of the works occur upon
the lowest or latest formed of these, while they are found
indiscriminately upon all the others, bears directly upon the
question of their antiquity.

Many of these structures are of vast dimensions ; indeed, the
works of greatest magnitude are those which are most clearly
of defensive origin. A fortified hill in the vicinity of Chilli-
cothe embraces one hundred and forty acres within its walls ;
and another military work — most probably a fortified village —

* This observation is confirmed by all who have given attention to
the subject in the Ohio and Upper Mississippi valleys. Along the Gulf
and at points on the Lower Mississippi, where the entire country is low
and subject to inundation, some of the ancient monuments are invaded
by the water.

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 303

on the banks of the North Fork of Paint Creek, five miles from
Chillicothe, has an area of one hundred and twenty-seven
acres. To appreciate fully the judgment displayed in the
choice of position, and the skill exhibited in defence, a minute
examination of a series of these structures is necessary. No
one can rise from such an examination without being convinced
that the race by whom they were erected possessed no incon
siderable knowledge of the science of defence — a degree of
knowledge much superior to that known to have been possessed
by the North American tribes previous to the discovery by
Columbus, or indeed, subsequent to that event. Their number
and magnitude must also impress the inquirer with enlarged
notions of the power of the people commanding the means for
their construction, and whose numbers required such extensive
works for their protection. It is not impossible that they were,
to a certain extent, designed to embrace cultivated fields, so as
to furnish the means of sustenance to their defenders in event
of a protracted siege. There is no other foundation, however,
for this suggestion than that furnished by the size of some of
these defensive inclosures. The population finding shelter
within their walls must have been exceedingly large, if their
dimensions may be taken as the basis of a calculation.

The vast amount of labor necessary to the erection of most
of these works precludes the notion that they were hastily con
structed to check a single or unexpected invasion. On the
contrary there seems to have existed a system of defences, ex
tending from the mouth of the Alleghany diagonally across
the country, through central Ohio to the Wabash. Within
this range, those works which ar§ regarded as defensive are
largest and most numerous. If an inference may be drawn
from this fact, it is that the pressure of hostilities was from the
north-east ; or that, if the tide of migration flowed from the
south, it received its final check upon this line. On the other
hypothesis, thrat in this region originated a semi-civilization
which subsequently went southward, constantly developing

304 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

itself in its progress, until it attained its height in Mexico, we
may suppose from this direction came the hostile savage hordes,
before whose incessant attacks the less warlike mound-builders
gradually receded, or beneath whose exterminating cruelty
they entirely disappeared — leaving these monuments alone to
attest their existence, and the extraordinary skill with which
they defended their altars and their homes. Upon either
assumption it is clear that the contest was a protracted one,
and that the race of the mounds were for a long period con
stantly exposed to attack. This conclusion finds its support in
the fact that, in the vicinity of those localities, where, from the
amount of remains, it appears the ancient population was most
dense, we almost invariably find one or more works of a defen
sive character, furnishing ready places of resort in times of
danger. We may supppose that a state of things existed
somewhat analogous to that which attended the advance of our
pioneer population, when every settlement had its little fort, to
which the settlers flocked in case of alarm or attack.

It may be suggested that there existed among the mound-
builders a state of society something like that which prevailed
among the Indians; that each tribe had its separate seat,
maintaining an almost constant warfare against its neighbors,
and, as a consequence, possessing its own " castle," as a place
of final resort when invaded by a powerful foe. Apart from
the fact, however, that the Indians were hunters, averse to
labor, and not known to have constructed any works ap
proaching, in skilfulness of design or in magnitude, those under
notice, there is almost positive evidence that the mound-
builders were an agricultural people, considerably advanced
in the arts, and possessing great uniformity, throughout the
whole territory which they occupied, in manners, habits, and
religion, — a uniformity sufficiently marked to identify them
as a single people, having a common origin, common modes
of life, and, as a consequence, common sympathies, if not a
common and consolidated government,

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 305

SACRED WORKS

The structure, no less than the form and position, of a large
number of the earth-works of the West, and more particular
ly of the Scioto valley, render it clear that they were erected
for other than defensive purposes.* The small dimensions
of most of the circles, the occurrence of the ditch interior to
the embankment, and the fact that many of them are com
pletely commanded by adjacent heights, may be mentioned as
sustaining this conclusion. We must seek, therefore, in the
connection in which these works are found, and in the char
acter and contents of the mounds, if such there be, within
their walls for the secret of their origin. And it may be
observed, that it is here we find evidence still more satisfac
tory and conclusive than furnished by the small dimensions
of these works, or the position of the ditch, that they were
not intended for defence. Thus, when we find inclosures
containing a number of mounds, all of which it is capable of
demonstration were religious in their purposes, or in some
way connected with the superstitions of the people who built
them, the conclusion is irresistible that the inclosure itself
was also deemed sacred, and thus set apart as u tabooed" or
consecrated ground — especially where it is obvious, at first
glance, that it possesses none of the requisites of a military
work. But it is not to be concluded that those inclosures

* It seems incredible that many well-informed men, who have exam
ined some of the small circular and elliptical works of the West, should
have fallen into the palpable error of supposing them defensive in their
origin. Major Long (Second Exp. vol. i., p. 54) describes some petty
works in the vicinity of Piqua, Ohio, consisting of a number of small
circles, as of undoubted warlike origin, applying to them the terms of
military technology. One of these circles, which he regards as a " re
doubt" is 43 feet in diameter, and has its ditch interior to the wall ! A
famous defence, truly, contrasted with the fortified hills already de
scribed !

306 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

alone, which contain mounds of the description here named,
were designed for sacred purposes. We have reason to be
lieve that the religious system of the mound-builders, like
that of the Mexicans, exercised among them a great, if not a
controlling influence. Their government may have been, for
aught we know, a government of the priesthood ; one in
which the priestly and civil functions were jointly exercised,
and one sufficiently powerful to have secured in the Missis
sippi valley, as it did in Mexico, the erection of many of
those vast monuments, which for ages will continue to chal
lenge the wonder of men. There may have been certain
superstitious ceremonies, having no connection with the pur
poses of the mounds, carried on in inclosures specially dedi
cated to them. There are several minor inclosures within
the great defensive work already referred to, on the banks of
the North Fork of Paint Creek, (A. M. Plate X..) the pur
poses of which would scarcely admit of doubt, even though
the sacred mounds which they embrace were wanting. It is
a conclusion which every day's investigation and observation
has tended to confirm, that most, perhaps all the earth-works,
not manifestly defensive in their character, were in some way
connected with the superstitious rites of the builders, though
in what manner, it is, and perhaps ever will be, impossible
satisfactorily to determine.

What dim light analogy sheds upon this point goes to sus
tain this conclusion. The British Islands only afford works
with which any comparison can safely be instituted. The
" ring forts" of the ancient Celts are nearly identical in form
and structure with a large class of remains in our own coun
try ; and these are regarded by all well-informed British an
tiquaries as strictly religious in their origin, or connected
with the rites of the ancient Druidical system. This conclu
sion is not entirely speculative, but rests in a great degree
upon traditional and historical facts. The late Sir R. C.
Hoare, author of " Ancient Wiltshire" (the most scientific as

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 307

also the most splendid antiquarian work ever issued from the
British press), regarded the occurrence of the fosse, interior
to the wall, in a portion of the British works, as precluding
the supposition of a military, and establishing their religious
origin.

The character of these works has already been briefly indi
cated. They are generally regular in their structure, and
occupy the broad and level river-bottoms, seldom occurring
upon the table-lands, or where the surface is undulating or
broken. Their usual form is that of the square or the circle ;
sometimes they are slightly elliptical. Occasionally we find
them isolated, but oftenest in groups. The greater number
of the circles are of small size, having a nearly uniform di
ameter of two hundred and fifty or three hundred feet, with
the ditch invariably interior to the wall. These have always
a single gateway, opening oftenest toward the east, but by no
means observing a fixed rule in this respect. It frequently
happens that they have one or more small mounds interior to
their walls, of the class denominated sacrificial. These small
circles occasionally occur within larger works of a defensive
character. Apart from these, numerous little circles, from
thirty to fifty feet in diameter, are observed in the vicinity
of large works, consisting of a very light embankment of
earth, and destitute of a gateway or entrance. It has been
suggested that these are the remains of the ancient lodges or
of other buildings. The accounts which we have of the
traces left of the huts of the Mandans and other Indian
tribes, at their deserted villages, render this supposition not
improbable. It sometimes happens that we find small circles
around the bases of large mounds ; these probably cannot be
regarded as of the same character with that numerous class
already described.

The larger circles are oftenest found in combination with
rectangular works, connecting with them directly or by avenues.
Some of these are of large size, embracing fifty or more acres.

308 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

They seldom have a ditch ; but whenever it occurs, it is interior
to the wall. As in the case of the squares or rectangular
works with which they are attached, (and which, it is believed,
never have ditches, exterior or interior,) the walls are usually
composed of earth taken up evenly from the surface, or from
large pits in the neighborhood. Evident care seems in all
cases to have been exercised, in procuring the material, to pre
serve the surface of the adjacent plain smooth, and as far as
possible unbroken. This fact is in itself almost conclusive
against the supposition of a defensive design, especially as we
have abundant evidence that the mound-builders understood
perfectly the value of the external fosse in their works of de
fence. The walls of these works are, for the most part, com
paratively slight, varying from three to seven feet in height.
Sometimes they are quite imposing ; as in the case of the great
circle at Newark, Licking county. Ohio, where, at the entrance,
the wall from the bottom of the ditch has a vertical height of
not far from thirty feet. The square or rectangular works at
tending these large circles are of various dimensions. It has
been observed, however, that certain groups are marked by a
great uniformity of size. Five or six of these now occur to the
writer, placed at long distances asunder, which are exact squares,
each measuring one thousand and eighty feet side — a coinci
dence which could not possibly be accidental, and which must
possess some significance. It certainly establishes the existence
of some standard of measurement among the ancient people,
if not the possession of some means of determining angles.
The rectangular works have almost invariably gateways at the
angles and midway on each side, each of which is covered by a
small interior mound or elevation. In some of the larger
structures the openings are more numerous. A few of this de
scription of remains have been discovered which are octagonal.
One of large size, in the vicinity of Chillicothe, has the alter
nate angles coincident with each other, and the sides equal.
Another description of works, probably akin to those here

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.

described, are the parallels, consisting of light embankments,
seven or eight hundred feet in length and sixty or eighty
apart.

Indeed, so various are these works, and so numerous their
combinations, that it is impossible to convey any accurate con
ception of them, without entering into a minuteness of detail
and an extent of illustration utterly beyond the limits of this
paper. They are invested with singular interest, alike from
their peculiar form and the character and contents of the
mounds which they inclose. If we are right in the assumption
that they are of sacred origin, and were the temples and con
secrated grounds of the ancient people, we can, from their num
ber and extent, form some estimate of the devotional fervor or
superstitious zeal which induced their erection, and the pre
dominance of the religious sentiment among their builders.

The magnitude of some of these structures is, perhaps, the
strongest objection that can be urged against the position here
assigned them. It is difficult to comprehend the existence of
religious works, extending, with their attendant avenues, like
those near Newark in Ohio, over an area of little less ih&ufour
square miles ! We can find their parallels only in the great
temples of Abury and Stonehenge in England, and Carnac in
Brittany, and associate them with a mysterious worship of the
Sun, or an equally mysterious Sabianism. Within the mounds
inclosed in many of these sacred works, we find the altars upon
which glowed their sacrificial fires, and where the ancient peo
ple offered their propitiations to the strange gods of their primi
tive superstition. These altars also furnish us with the too
unequivocal evidence that the ritual of the mound-builders,
like that of the Aztecs, was disfigured by sanguinary observ
ances, and that human sacrifices were not deemed unacceptable
to the divinity of their worship. It is of course impossible in
this connection to go into the details of the evidence upon this
or kindred points of interest.

310

THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

THE MOUNDS.

- FIG. 69. Temple Mound.

Intimately connected with the
interesting works already de
scribed are the mounds ; of these,
however, little has hitherto been
known. The popular opinion,
based, in a great degree, upon the
well-ascertained purposes of the
barrows and tumuli occurring in
certain parts of Europe and Asia,
is, that they are simple monu
ments, marking the last resting-place of some great chief or
distinguished individual, among the tribes of the builders.
Some have supposed them to be the cemeteries, in which were
deposited the dead of a tribe or village, for a certain period,
and that the size of the mound is an indication of the number
inhumed. Others, that they mark the sites of great battles,
and contain the bones of the slain. On all hands the opinion
has been entertained, that they were devoted to sepulture alone.
This received opinion is not, however, sustained by the investi
gations set on foot by the writer and his associate. The con-

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 311

elusion to which their observations have led, is, that the mounds
were constructed for several grand and dissimilar purposes ; or
rather, that they are of different classes ; — the conditions upon
which the classification is founded being four in number —
namely : position, form, structure, and contents. In this classi
fication, we distinguish —

1st. Altar Mounds, which occur in, or in the immediate
vicinity of inclosures, which are stratified, and contain altars
of burned clay or stone, and which were places of sacrifice.

2d. Mounds of Sepulture, which stand isolated, or in groups,
more or less remote from the inclosures, which are not stratified,
which contain human remains, and which were the burial-places
and monuments of the dead.

3d. Temple Mounds, which occur most usually within, but some
times without the walls of inclosures; which possess great
regularity of form ; which contain neither altars nor human re
mains ; but which were " High Places " for the performance of
religious rites and ceremonies, the sites of structures, or in some
way connected with the superstitions of the builders.

4th. Anomalous Mounds, including mounds of observation,
and such as were applied to a double purpose, or of which the
design and objects are not apparent. This division includes
all which do not clearly fall within the preceding three classes.

These classes are broadly marked in the aggregate ; but, in
some instances, they seem to run into each other. Mounds of
this mixed character, as well as those which, under our present
condition of knowledge respecting them, do not seem to indi
cate any clear purpose, have been denominated anomalous. Of
one hundred mounds excavated, sixty were altar or sacrificial
mounds, twenty sepulchral, and twenty either places of obser
vation or anomalous in their character. Such, however, is not
the proportion in which they occur. From the fact that the
mounds of sacrifice are most interesting and most productive
in relics, the largest number excavated has been of that class.
In the Scioto valley the mounds are distributed between the

312 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

three classes specified, in very nearly equal proportions ; the
mounds of observation and the anomalous mounds constituting
together about one third of the whole number.

Mounds of Sacrifice. — The general characteristics of this
class of mounds are :

1st. That they occur only within, or in the immediate vicinity
of inclosures or sacred places.*

2d. That they are stratified.

3d. That they contain symmetrical altars of burned clay
or stone, on which are deposited various remains, which, in
all cases, have been more or less subjected to the action of fire.

Of the whole number of mounds of this class which were
examined by the author, four only were found to be exterior to
the walls of inclosures, and these were but a few rods distant
from the ramparts.

The fact of stratification, in these mounds, is one of great
interest and importance. This feature has heretofore been
remarked, but not described with proper accuracy ; and has
consequently proved an impediment to the recognition of the
artificial origin of the mounds, by those who have never seen
them. The stratification, so far as observed, is not horizontal,
but always conforms to the convex outline of the mound. f Nor

* It is not assumed to say that all the mounds occurring within inclo
sures are altar or sacrificial mounds. On the contrary, some are found
which, to say the least, are anomalous, while others were clearly the
sites of structures or temple mounds.

f Some of the mounds, on the Lower Mississippi, are horizontally
stratified, exhibiting alternate layers, from base to summit. These
mounds differ in form from the conical structures here referred to, and
were doubtless constructed for a different purpose. Some are repre
sented as composed of layers of earth, two or three feet thick, each one
of which is surmounted by a burned surface, which has been mistaken
for a rude brick pavement. Others are composed of alternate layers of
earth and human remains. Their origin is doubtless to be found in the
annual bone burials of the Cherokees and other southern Indians, of
which accounts are given by Bartram and other early writers. It is not

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 313

does it resemble the stratification produced by the action of
water, where the layers run into each other, but is defined with
the utmost distinctness, and always terminates upon reaching
the level of the surrounding earth. That it is artificial will, how
ever, need no argument to prove, after an examination of one
of the mounds in which the feature occurs ; for, it would 'be dif
ficult to explain, by what singular combination of " igneous and
aqueous " action, stratified mounds were always raised over sym
metrical monuments of burned clay or of stone.

The altars, or basins, found in these mounds, are almost in
variably of burned clay, though one or two of stone have been
discovered. They are symmetrical, but not of uniform size and
shape. Some are round, others elliptical, and others square, or
parallelograms. Some are small, measuring barely two feet
across, while others are fifty feet long by twelve and fifteen
wide. The usual dimensions are from five to eight feet. All
appear to have been modeled of fine clay, brought to the spot
from a distance, and rest upon the original surface of the earth.
In a few instances, a layer or small elevation of sand had been
laid down, upon which the altar was formed. The elevation of
the altars, nevertheless, seldom exceeds a foot or twenty inches
above the adjacent level. The clay of which they are composed
is usually burned hard, sometimes to the depth of ten, fifteen,
and even twenty inches. This is hardly to be explained, by
any degree or continuance of heat, though it is manifest that in
some cases the heat was intense. On the other hand, a number
of these altars have been noticed, which are very slightly burned ;
and such, it is a remarkable fact, are destitute of remains.

The subjoined account of a mound of this class (No. 9 of
" Mound City," A. M. Plate XIX..) will give an idea of their
detailed characteristics. This mound is seven feet high by fifty-
impossible that, in rare instances, natural elevations have been modified
by art so as to serve some of the purposes for which mounds were
erected. In such the natural stratification would be preserved.

14

314 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

five feet base. A shaft, five feet square, was sunk from its apex,
with the following results.: —

1st. Occurred a layer of coarse gravel and pebbles, which ap
peared to have been taken from deep pits, surrounding the in-
closure, or from the bank of the river. This layer was one foot
in thickness.

2d. Beneath this layer of gravel and pebbles, to the depth
of two feet, the earth was homogeneous, though slightly mottled,
as if taken up and deposited in small loads, from different locali
ties. In one place appeared a deposit of dark-colored, surface
loam, and by its side, or covering it, there was a mass of the
clayey soil of greater depth. The outlines of these various de
posits could be distinctly traced.

3d. Below this deposit of earth, occurred a thin and even
layer of fine sand, a little over an inch in thickness.

4th. A deposit of earth, as above, eighteen inches in depth.

5th. Another stratum of sand, somewhat thinner than the
one above mentioned.

6th. Another deposit of earth, one foot thick ; beneath which
was —

7th. A third stratum of sand ; below which was —

8th. Still another layer of earth, a few inches in thickness ;
which rested on —

9th. An altar, or basin, of burned clay.

This altar was perfectly round, nine feet in diameter, and
twenty inches high. The basin, or hollow, was also perfectly
round, five feet in diameter, and nine inches deep. The body
of the altar was burned throughout, though in a greater degree
within the basin, where it was so hard as to resist the blows of
a heavy hatchet, the instrument rebounding as if struck upon a
rock. The basin, or hollow of the altar, was filled even full with
fine dry ashes, intermixed with which were some fragments of
pottery, of an excellent finish and elegant model, ornamented
with tasteful carvings on the exterior. One of the vases, taken
in fragments from this mound, has been very nearly restored.

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 315

Its height is six, its greatest diameter eight inches. The mate
rial is hardly distinguishable from that composing the pottery
of the ancient Peruvians ; and in respect of finish, it is fully
equal to the best Peruvian specimens. A few convex copper
discs, much resembling the bosses used upon harnesses, were
also found.

Above the deposit of ashes, and covering the entire basin,
was a layer of silvery or opaque mica, in sheets, overlapping
each other ; and, immediately over the centre of the basin, was
heaped a quantity of burned human bones, probably the amount
of a single skeleton, in fragments. The layer of mica and cal
cined bones, it should be remarked, to prevent misapprehension,
were peculiar to this individual mound, and were not found in
any other of the class.

At a point about two feet below the surface of the mound, a
human skeleton was found. It was placed a little to the left
of the centre, with the head to the east, and was so much de
cayed as to render it impossible to extract a single bone entire.
Above the skeleton, the earth and outer layer of gravel and
pebbles were broken up and intermixed. Thus while on one
side of the shaft the strata were clearly marked, on the other
they were confused. And, as this was the first mound of the
class excavated, it was supposed, from this circumstance, that
it had previously been opened by some explorer, and it had
been decided to abandon it when the skeleton was discovered.
Afterward the matter came to be fully understood. No relics
were found with this skeleton.

It is a fact well known, that the modern Indians, though
possessing no knowledge of the origin or objects of the
mounds, were accustomed to regard them with some degree
of veneration. It is also known, that they sometimes buried
their dead in them, in accordance with the almost invariable
custom which leads them to select elevated points, and the
brows of hills, as their cemeteries. That their remains should
be found in the mounds, is therefore a matter of no surprise.

316 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

They are never discovered at any great depth, not often more
than eighteen inches or three feet below the surface. Their
position varies in almost every case : most are extended at
length, others have a sitting posture, while others again seem
to have been rudely thrust into their shallow graves without
care or arrangement. Rude implements of bone and stone,
and coarse vessels of pottery, such as are known to have been
in use among the Indians at the period of the earliest Euro
pean intercourse, occur with some of them, particularly with
those of a more ancient date ; while modern implements and
ornaments, in some cases of European origin, are found with
the recent burials. The necessity therefore of a careful and
rigid discrimination, between these deposits and those of the
mound-builders, will be apparent. From the lack of such
discrimination, much misapprehension and confusion have
resulted. Silver crosses, gun-barrels, and French dial-plates
have been found with skeletons in the mounds 5 yet it is not
to be concluded that the mound-builders were Catholics, or
used fire-arms, or understood French. Such a conclusion
would, nevertheless, be quite as well warranted, as some
which have been deduced from the absolute identity of cer
tain relics, taken from the mounds, with articles known to be
common among the existing tribes of Indians. The fact of
remains occurring in the mounds, is in itself hardly pre
sumptive evidence that they pertained to the builders. The
conditions attending them can alone determine their true
character. As a general rule, to which there are few excep
tions, the only authentic and undoubted remains of the
mound-builders are found directly beneath the apex of the
mound, on a level with the original surface of the earth ;
and it may be safely assumed, that whatever deposits occur
near the surface of the mounds are of a date subsequent to
their erection.

In the class of mounds now under consideration we have
data which will admit of no doubt, whereby to judge of the

OF THE MISIISSIPPI VALLEY. 317

origin, as well as the relative periods, of the various deposits
found in them. If the stratification already mentioned as
characterizing them, is unbroken and undisturbed, if the
strata are regular and entire, it is certain that whatever oc
curs beneath them, was placed there at the period of the con
struction of the mound. And if, on the other hand, these
strata are broken up, it is equally certain that the mound has
been disturbed, and new deposits made, subsequent to its
erection. It is in this view, that the fact of stratification is
seen to be important, as well as interesting ; for it will serve
to fix, beyond all dispute, the origin of many singular relics,
having a decisive bearing on some of the leading questions
connected with American Archaeology. The thickness of the
exterior layer of gravel, &c., in mounds of this class, varies
with the dimensions of the mound, from eight to twenty
inches. In a very few instances, the layer, which may have
been designed to protect the form of the mound, and which
purpose it admirably subserves, is entirely wanting. The
number and relative position of the sand strata are variable ;
in some of the larger mounds, there are as many as six of
them, in no case less than one, most usually two or three.

In one case which fell under my observation, and in another,
of which I have an account from the person who discovered
it, the altar was of stone. This altar was elevated two and
one half feet above the original surface of the earth, and was
five feet long by four broad. It was a simple elevation of
earth packed hard, and was faced, on every side and on top,
with slabs of stone of regular form, and nearly uniform thick
ness. They were laid evenly, and, as a mason would say,
" with close joints ;" and though uncut by any instrument,
the edges were straight and smooth. The stone is " the "Wa-
verly sandstone," underlying the coal series, thin strata of
which cap every hill. This stone breaks readily, with a rect
angular fracture, and hence the regularity of the slabs is not
so much a matter of surprise. This altar bore the marks of

318 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

fire, and fragments of the mound-builders' ornaments were
found on and around it. What had originally been deposited
there was probably removed by the modern Indians, who
had opened the mound and buried one of their dead on the
altar.

Mounds of this class are most fruitful in relics of the
builders. On the altars have been found, though much in
jured and broken up by the action of fire, instruments and
ornaments of silver, copper, stone, and bone ; beads of silver,
copper, pearls, and shell; spear and arrow heads of flint,
quartz, garnet, and obsidian ; fossil teeth of the shark ; teeth
of the alligator ; marine shells ; galena ; sculptures o f the
human head, and of numerous animals ; pottery of various
kinds, and a large number of interesting articles, some of
which evince great skill in art. No description of these can
be given here.

MOUNDS OF SEPULCHRE.

The Mounds of Sepulchre stand apart from the inclosures,
and, in their average dimensions, greatly exceed those of the
first class. The celebrated mound at Grave Creek is of this
class. They lack the gravel and sand strata, which character
ize those already described, and are destitute of " altars."
They invariably cover a skeleton (sometimes more than one,
as at Grave Creek), which, at the time of its interment, was
inclosed in a rude framework of timber, or enveloped in bark
or coarse matting, the traces, in some instances the very casts,
of which remain.

The subjoined account of a single mound of this class will
serve to exhibit their peculiarities. It occurs on the third
u bottom " or terrace of the Scioto river, six miles below the
town of Chillicothe. There are no inclosures nearer than a mile ;
though there are three or four other mounds, of smaller size, on
the same terrace, within a few hundred yards. The mound is
twenty-two feet high, by ninety feet base. The principal exca-

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 319

vation was made from the west side, commencing at about one-
third of the height of the mound from the top. At ten feet
below the surface, occurred a layer of charcoal, not far from ten
feet square, and from two to six inches in thickness, slightly in
clined from the horizontal, and lying mostly to the left of the
centre of the mound. The coal was coarse and clear, and seemed
to have been formed by the sudden covering up of the wood
while burning, inasmuch as the trunks and branches retained
their form, though entirely carbonized, and the earth immedi
ately above, as well as below, was burned of a reddish color.
Below this layer the earth became much more compact and dif
ficult of excavation. At the depth of twenty-two feet, and on
a level with the original surface, immediately underneath the
charcoal layer, and, like that, somewhat to one side of the centre
of the mound, was a rude timber framework, now reduced to an
almost impalpable powder, but the cast of which was still re
tained in the hard earth. This inclosure of timber, measured
from outside to outside, was nine feet long by seven wide, and
twenty inches high. It had been constructed of logs laid one
on the other, and had evidently been covered with other tim
bers, which had sunk under the superincumbent earth, as they
decayed. The bottom had also been covered with bark, mat
ting, or thin slabs — at any rate, a whitish stratum of decomposed
material remained, covering the bottom of the parallelogram.
Within this rude coffin, with his head to the west, was found a
human skeleton, or rather the remains of one ; for scarcely a
fragment as long as one's finger could be recovered. It was so
much decayed that it crumbled to powder under the slightest
touch. Around the neck of the skeleton, forming a triple row,
and retaining their position, as originally strung and deposited
with the dead, were several hundred beads, made of ivory, or
the tusks of some animal. Several of these still retain their
polish, and bear marks which seem to indicate that they were
turned in some machine, instead of being carved by hand. A
few laminae of mica were also discovered, which completed the

320 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

list of articles found with this skeleton. The feet of the skele
ton were nearly in the centre of the mound. A drift beyond it
developed nothing new, nor was a corresponding layer of char
coal found on the opposite side of the mound. It is clear, there
fore, that the tumulus was raised over this single skeleton. In
the case of a mound of this class, opened at Gallipolis, on the
Ohio river, the chamber inclosing the skeleton was found just
below the original surface, — which can always be detected by a
strongly marked line and the uniform drab color of the earth
beneath it.

The layer of charcoal is not uniformly found in mounds of
this class, though it is a feature of frequent occurrence. It
would seem to indicate that sacrifices were made for the dead,
or that funeral rites of some kind were celebrated. The fire, in
every case, was kept burning for a very brief space, as is shown by
the lack of ashes, and the slight traces of its action left on the
adjacent earth. That it was suddenly heaped over, is also
proved by the facts already presented.

Bracelets of copper and silver; beads of bone and shell;
mica plates and ornaments ; stone instruments of various kinds,
some of which are identical with those found in mounds of the
first class, &c. &c., are found with the skeletons. In every in
stance falling within our observation, the skeleton has been so
much decayed, that any attempt to restore the skull, or indeed
any portion of it, was hopeless, Considering that the earth
around these skeletons is wonderfully compact and dry, and
that the conditions for their preservation were exceedingly
favorable, while, in fact, they are so much decayed, we may form
some estimate of their remote antiquity. In the barrows and
cromlechs of the ancient Britons, entire and well-preserved
skeletons are found, although having an undoubted antiquity
of 1800 years.

In some of the sepulchral mounds, as has already been
stated, the sarcophagus, if we so please to term it, was omitted
by the builders, the dead body having been simply enveloped

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.

in bark or matting. Perhaps this course was most frequently
pursued. In these cases the original surface appears to have
been carefully smoothed and leveled, for a space ten or twenty
feet square, which space was covered with bark. Upon this was
deposited the dead body, and, by its side, such personal orna
ments or implements as were deemed proper, the whole being
covered with another layer of bark, and the tumulus raised
above. Instances have occurred in which it is clear that burial
by incremation was made, but these are comparatively rare. In
the celebrated mound at Grave Creek, two sepulchral chambers
were discovered, one at the base, another at a higher point.
The lower one contained two skeletons, and the upper but one.
The mound, in this respect, is somewhat extraordinary. It may
be conjectured, with some appearance of reason, that it con
tained the bones of the family of a chieftain, or a distinguished
individual, among the builders. It is common to find two or
three, sometimes four or five, sepulchral mounds, in a group.
In such cases, it is always to be remarked, that one of the group

FIG. 70.

is much the largest, twice or three times the dimensions of any
of the others, and that the smaller ones are arranged around its
base, generally joining it, thus evincing an intended dependence

14*

322 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

and close connection between them. Plans of three groups of
this description are given in the annexed figures. May we not
conclude that such a group is the tomb of a family — the prin
cipal mound covering the head of the same, the smaller ones its
various members ? In the Grave Creek mound, it is possible
that, instead of building a new mound, an additional chamber
was constructed upon the summit of the one already raised — a
single mound being thus made to occupy the place of a group.

TEMPLE MOUNDS.

These mounds are distinguished by their general large di
mensions and great regularity of form. They occur most
usually within, but sometimes without, the walls of inclosures.
They consist chiefly of pyramidal structures, truncated and
generally having graded avenues to their tops. In some in
stances they are terraced, or have successive stages. But
whatever their form, whether round, oval, octangular, square,
or oblong, they have invariably flat or level tops of greater
or less area. Examples are known in which, although but a
few feet in elevation, they cover several acres of ground ; in
which cases they are commonly called " platforms." Exam
ples of these structures are given in " Ancient Monuments
of the Mississippi Valley," Plates XVIII, XXV., XXVL,
and in Figs. 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65. So far as ascertained
they cover no remains, and are obviously designed as the sites
of temples or of other structures which have passed away, or
as " high places" for the performance of religious ceremonies.
The likeness which they bear to the Teocallis of Mexico, is
• striking, and suggestive of their probable purposes.

One of the most remarkable of this class of structures is
that at Cahokia, in Illinois. Its form is that of a parallelo
gram, seven hundred feet long, by five hundred wide at the
base. It is ninety feet high. Upon one side is a broad apron
or terrace, which is reached by a graded ascent. At the time
this mound w^s occupied by the Monks of La Trappe, the ter-

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.

323

race was used as a garden. It is one hundred and sixty feet
wide, and three hundred and fifty long. The summit, or
highest part of the mound measures two hundred feet in
width by four hundred and fifty in length. This mound cov
ers not far from eight acres of ground, and the area of its
level summit is about five acres. Its solid contents may be
roughly estimated at 20,000.000 of cubic feet. In the states
bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, these mounds constitute
the most numerous and important part of the ancient re
mains. Here they are generally of larger size, and enter
into new combinations, occurring entirely separate from in-
closures of any sort, and frequently placed with great regu
larity in respect to each other. It sometimes happens that
a large truncated mound is surrounded by a series of smaller
ones, so as to form an ellipse, circle, square, or parallelogram.

FIG. 71.

No. 1 in the above cut (Fig. 71), occurs within the great
inclosure at Marietta, Ohio. The plan and sections exhibit
its structure and dimensions. No. 2 is an elevation of a sim
ilar mound on the banks of Walnut Bayou, Madison Parish,
Louisiana.

324 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

ANOMALOUS MOUNDS.

It will be impossible, within the compass of this resume, to
enter into the details which a proper notice of these mounds
would require. Such a notice would necessarily involve a de
scription of almost every one thus characterized. A single
mound was examined which contained an altar, and also a
skeleton with its rude inclosure of wood. It was elliptical in
shape, measuring one hundred and sixty feet in length, sixty
in width and twenty-five in height. The altar occupied one
centre of the ellipse, the chamber of the skeleton the other.
Of the twenty-six mounds embraced in "Mound City," six are
of very small dimensions, not exceeding three feet in height.
Within each of these was deposited a quantity of burned hu
man bones in fragments, not exceeding in any case the amount
of a single skeleton. No relics were found with these, though
in one instance the fragment of an altar, a couple of inches
square, was observed with the bones, leading to the conclusion
that they were taken up from the altars, in the adjacent larger
mounds, and afterward finally deposited here.

On the tops of the hills and on the jutting points of the
table lands bordering the valleys in which the earth-works of
the West are found, mounds occur in considerable numbers.
The most elevated and commanding positions are frequently
crowned by them, suggesting at once the use to which some
of the cairns of the Celts were applied — that of signal or
alarm posts. On a high hill, opposite Chillicothe, six hun
dred feet in height, the loftiest in the whole region, one of
these mounds is placed. A fire built upon it would be visible
for a distance of fifteen or twenty miles up and down the
river, as well as for a number of miles up the valley of Paint
Creek — a broad and fertile valley, abounding in ancient mon
uments. Between Chillicothe and Columbus, a distance of
forty-five miles, there are about twenty mounds, so placed

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 325

that, it is believed, if the country were cleared of forests, sig
nals by fire could be transmitted along the whole line in a
few minutes. My examination of this description of mounds,
from a variety of causes, has been comparatively limited. So
far as my personal observation goes, they contain few of the
remains found in the two classes of mounds just described ;
and, although there are traces of fire around many of them,
the marks are not sufficiently strong to justify fully the infe
rences that they were look-outs and fires used as the signals.
Indeed, it is certain that, in some cases, they contain human
remains, undoubtedly those of the mound-builders. It is
possible that a portion, perhaps all, were devoted to sepulture,
another portion to observation, or that some answered a double
purpose. This is a point which remains to be settled by more
extended observations.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON MOUNDS.

Whether these classes are maintained throughout the West,
is a question which a systematic examination, carried on over a
wide field, alone can determine. In almost every case falling
within our knowledge, where mounds have been thoroughly ex
amined by competent persons, some of the features here marked
have been noticed. It is conjectured, that the " brick hearths,"
of which mention has occasionally been made, were the " altars,"
already described as belonging to a certain class of mounds.
Nothing is more likely than that some of them were left uncov
ered by the builders, and subsequently hidden by natural accu
mulations, to be again exposed by the invading plough, or the
recession of the banks of streams. The indentations occasion
ed by the passage of roots across them, or by other causes,
would naturally suggest the notion of rude brick hearths.

REMAINS OP ART FOUND IN THE MOUNDS.

The condition of the ordinary arts of life, among the people
which constructed the singular and often imposing monuments

326

THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

we have been contemplating, furnishes a prominent and inter
esting subject of inquiry. How far the conclusion, already hy-
pothetically advanced, that the vast amount of labor expended
upon these works, their number, and the regularity and design
which they exhibit, denote a numerous people, considerably ad
vanced from the nomadic, hunter, or radically savage state, —
how far this conclusion is sustained by the character of the
minor remains, of which we shall now speak, remains to be
seen.

It has already been remarked that the mounds are the prin
cipal depositories of ancient art, and that in them we must seek
for the only authentic remains of the builders. In the obser
vance of a practice almost universal among barbarous or semi-
civilized nations, the mound-builders deposited various articles
of use and ornament with their dead. They also, under the
prescriptions of their religion, or in accordance with customs
unknown to us, and to which perhaps no direct analogy is
afforded by those of any other people, placed upon their altars
numerous ornaments and implements, — probably those most
valued by their possessors. — which remain there to this day,
attesting at once the religious zeal of the depositors, and their
skill in the minor arts.

The necessity of a careful discrimination between the various
remains found in the mounds, resulting from the fact that the
races succeeding the builders in occupation of the country often
buried their dead in them, has probably been dwelt upon with
sufficient force, in another connection. Aside from the distinc
tive features of the relics themselves, attention to the conditions
under which they are discovered, and to the simple rules which
seem to have governed the mound-builders in making their de
posits, can hardly fail to fix, with great certainty, their date
and origin. Their true position satisfactorily determined, we
proceed with confidence to comparisons and deductions, which
otherwise, however accurate and ingenious they might be, would
nevertheless be invested with painful uncertainty. From want

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 327

of proper care in this respect, there is no doubt that articles of
European origin, which, by a very natural train of events, found
their way to the mounds, have been made the basis of specula
tions concerning the arts of the mound-builders. To this cause
we may refer the existence of the popular errors, that the an
cient people were acquainted with the use of iron, and under
stood the art of plating, gilding, etc.*

The relics found in the mounds are such only as, from the
nature of the materials of which they are composed, have been
able to resist the general course of decay : — articles of pottery,
bone, shell, stone, and metal. We can, of course, expect to
find but slight traces of instruments or utensils of wood, and
but few, and doubtful ones at best, of the materials which went
to compose articles of dress.

The first inquiry suggested by an inspection of the mounds
and other earth-works of the West, relates to the means at the
command of the builders in their construction. However dense
we may suppose the ancient population to have been, we must
regard these works as entirely beyond their capabilities, unless
they possessed some artificial aids. As an agricultural people,
they must have had some means of clearing the land of forests
and of tilling the soil. We can hardly conceive, at this day,
how these operations could be performed without the aid of
iron ; yet we know that the Mexicans and Peruvians, whose
monuments emulate the proudest of the old world, were wholly
unacquainted with the uses of that metal, and constructed their
edifices and carried on their agricultural operations with imple-

* A silver cup is said to have been found, many years ago, in a mound
near Marietta, Ohio, which, " though simple in its form, was smooth
and regular, and had its interior finely gilded" (Schooler aft's View, p.
276.) This statement has been quoted by several writers, as illustrat
ing the advance of the mound-builders in the arts. Assuming the fact
to be as stated, there is nothing very extraordinary in the discovery.
What more likely than that this cup fell, in course of barter or by acci
dent, into the hands of some savage, with whom, in accordance with
the Indian custom, it was buried at his death.

328 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

ments of wood, stone, and copper. They possessed the secret
of hardening the metal last named, so as to make it subserve
most of the uses to which iron is applied. Of it they made
axes, chisels, and knives. The mound-builders, also, worked it
into similar implements, although it is not yet certain that they
contrived to give it any extraordinary hardness. A number
of axes have been extracted from their depositories, the general
form of which is well exhibited in the engravings of Mexican
axes, presented in the first part of this work, in treating of the
use of copper by the Aborigines. A specimen found in a
mound near Chillicothe, Ohio, (A. M. Fig. 81.) consists of a
solid, well-hammered piece of copper, and weighs two pounds
and five ounces. It is seven inches long by four broad at the
cutting edge, and has an average thickness of little less than
four-tenths of an inch. Its edge is slightly curved, some
what after the manner of the axes of the present day, and is
beveled from both surfaces. Copper chisels, gravers, &c., have
also been found in the mounds. The metal seems, however,
to have been more generally applied to ornamental than useful
purposes ; for, while articles of ornament are common in both
the sacrificial and sepulchral mounds, copper implements are
comparatively rare. It is possible that ornaments were more
generally placed in the mounds than articles of use ; such cer
tainly is the case in respect to the mounds of sepulture. Cop
per beads, bracelets, gorgets, &c. &c., are of frequent occur
rence.

Silver has also been found, but in small quantities, reduced
to great thinness, and closely wrapped around copper orna
ments. The ore of lead, galena, has been found in considera
ble abundance, and some of the metal itself under circum
stances implying a knowledge of its use on the part of the
ancient people. The discovery of gold has been vaguely
announced, but is not well attested. It is not impossible that
articles of that metal have been found, with other vestiges of
European art, accompanying secondary and recent deposits ;

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 329

and it is far from impossible or even improbable, judging from
the extensive intercourse which they seem to have maintained,
that the metal may yet be disclosed under such circumstances
as to justify the conclusion that it was not entirely unknown
to the mound builders. No iron or traces of iron have been
discovered, except in connection with recent deposits ; and
there is no reason for believing that the race of the mounds
had the slightest acquaintance with its uses.

It is hardly to be supposed that the silver and copper found
in the mounds, were reduced from the ores of these metals.
On the contrary, it is nearly certain that they were obtained
native from primitive deposits. Indeed, fragments of un-
wrought native copper have occasionally been discovered, of
considerable size ; one of these, from which portions had evi
dently been cut, weighing twenty-three pounds, was found, a
few years since, near Chillicothe. Both metals appear to
have been worked in a cold state, and display the lamination
of surface resulting from such a process. This is somewhat
remarkable, as the fires upon the altars were sufficiently
strong, in some instances, to melt down the copper ornaments
and implements deposited upon them, and the fact that the
metal was fusible could hardly have escaped notice. The
locality, from which a portion at least of the supply of these
metals was obtained, is pretty clearly indicated, by the pecu
liar rnechanico-chemical combination existing in some speci
mens between the silver and copper, which combination char
acterizes the native masses of Lake Superior. The evident
scarcity of silver may also be regarded as supporting this
conclusion.

Galena, as already observed, is found in considerable quan
tities. One of the altars uncovered was entirely occupied by
a deposit of this mineral, which had been slightly subjected
to the action of fire. No native deposits of galena are known
to exist in Ohio, and the supply of the mounds was probably

330 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

obtained fromthe well-known localities on the Upper Missis
sippi.

The comparative scarcity of copper implements seems to
imply that they were not in general use. At any rate, they
never entirely superseded the ruder articles of bone and stone,
so generally diffused among rude nations all over the globe.
In Mexico .and Peru those characteristic implements of a
ruder state were still adhered to at the period of the discov
ery. The early explorers found all the American nations,
from the squalid Esquimaux, who struck the morse with a
lance pointed with its own tusks, to the haughty Aztec, rival
ing in his barbaric splendor the magnificence of the East,
including the fearless hunter tribes situated between these
extremes, in possession of them. We are not, therefore, sur
prised at their occurrence in the mounds. We find them
with the original and with the recent deposits, and the plough
turns them up to light on every hand. And so striking is the
resemblance between them all, that we are almost ready to
conclude they were the productions of the same people. The
conclusion would be irresistible, did we not know that the
wants of man have ever been the same, and have always sug
gested like forms to his implements, and similar modes of
using them. The polished instrument with which the pioneer
of civilization prostrates the forest, has its type in the stone
axe of the Indian which his plough the next day exposes to
his curious gaze. In the barrows of Denmark and Siberia, in
the tumuli on the plains of Marathon, and even under the
shadow of the pyramids themselves, the explorer finds relics,
almost identical with those disclosed from the mounds, and
closely resembling each other in material, form, and workman
ship. We have consequently little whereby to distinguish
the remains of the mound-builders, so far as their mere im
plements of stone are concerned, except the position in which
they are found, and the not entirely imaginary superiority of
their workmanship, from those of the succeeding races. We

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 331

have, however, in the different varieties of stone of which
they are composed, the evidences of a communication more
extended than we are justified in ascribing to the more recent
tribes. For instance, we find knives and lance-heads of obsid
ian (the itzli of the Mexicans and the gallinazo stone of the
Peruvians), a volcanic product, the nearest native locality of
which, so far as we know, is Central Mexico, the ancient in
habitants of which country applied it to the very purposes
for which it was. used by the race of the mounds.

Arrow and lance heads and cutting instruments of the nu
merous varieties of quartz, embracing every shade of color
and degree of transparency, from the dull blue of the ordina
ry hornstone to the brilliant opalescence of the chalcedonic
varieties, are frequent in the mounds. Some are worked with
exquisite skill from pure, limpid crystals of quartz, others from
crystals of manganesian garnet, and others still, as before ob
served, from obsidian. It is a singular fact, however, that none
of these, nor indeed any traces of weapons, have been discovered
in the " sepulchral mounds ;" most of the remains found with
the skeletons being evidently such as were deemed ornamental,
or recognized as badges of distinction. Some of the altar or
sacrificial mounds, on the other hand, have the deposits within
them almost entirely made up of finished arrow and spear
points, intermixed with masses of the unmanufactured material.
From one altar were taken several bushels of finely worked
lance heads of milky quartz, nearly all of which had been broken
up by the action of fire. In another mound, an excavation six
feet long and four broad, disclosed upwards of six hundred
spear heads or discs of hornstone, rudely blocked out, and the
deposit extended indefinitely on every side. Some of these are
represented in the accompanying engraving. They are neces
sarily greatly reduced. The originals are about six inches long
and four broad, and weigh not far from two pounds each. Some
specimens from this deposit are nearly round, but most are of
the shape of those here figured. We are wholly at a loss re-

332

THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

FIG. 72.

specting their purposes, unless they were designed to be worked
into the more elaborate instruments to which allusions has been
made, and were thus roughly blocked out for greater ease of
transportation from the quarries. Several localities are known
from which the material may have been obtained. One of these,
distinguished as " Flint Ridge," has been described on a pre
ceding page.

One description of knives, found in the mounds, is illustrated
in the following engraving, which also exhibits the absolute
identity that sometimes exists between the remains of widely
separated people, and how, almost as it were by instinct, men
hit upon common methods of meeting their wants.

FIG. 73.

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 333

No. 1 is of flint, from a Scandinavian barrow ; No. 2 is of
hornstone. from a mound in Ohio ; and No. 3 is of obsidian
from the pyramids of Teotihuacan, in Mexico. They are all
made in a like manner, by dexterously chipping off thin, nar
row pieces from blocks of the various minerals mentioned, all of
which break with a clear, conchoidal fracture and sharp cutting
edges. Clavigero states that, so skillful were the Mexicans in
this manufacture, that their workmen produced a hundred per
hour. It was with knives of this kind that the bloody sacrifices
of the Aztecs were performed.

In the manufacture of pottery, as has already been intimated,
the mound-builders attained a considerable proficiency. Many
of the vases recovered from the mounds display, in respect to
material, finish, and model, a marked superiority to anything
.of which the existing Indian tribes are known to have been
capable, and compare favorably with the best Peruvian speci
mens. Though of great symmetry of proportions, there is no
good reason to believe that they were turned on a lathe. Their
fine finish seems to have been the result of the same process
with that adopted by the Peruvians in their manufactures.
Some of them are tastefully ornamented with scrolls, figures of
birds, and other devices, which are engraved in the surface, in
stead of being embossed upon it. The lines appear to have
been cut with some sharp, gouge-shaped instrument, which en
tirely removed the detached material, leaving no ragged or
raised edges. Nothing can exceed the regularity and precision
with which the ornaments are executed. The material of which
the vases are composed is a fine clay, which, in the more deli
cate specimens, was worked nearly pure, or possessing a very
slight silicious intermixture. Some of the coarser specimens have
pulverized quartz mingled with the clay, while others are tem
pered with salmon-colored mica, in small flakes, which gives
them a ruddy and rather brilliant appearance, and was perhaps
introduced with some view to ornament as well as utility. None
appear to have been glazed ; though one or two, either from

334 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

baking or the subsequent great heat to which they were sub
jected, exhibit a slightly vitrified surface.

Various terra cottas are extracted from the mounds, though
they are far from numerous. They generally represent the
heads or figures of animals.

FIG. 74.

Fig. 74, is an outline representation of a rattle of baked clay,
found in a mound near Nashville, Tennessee. It has the form
of a human head, with a portentous nose and unprecedented
phrenological developments. It is smooth and well polished,
and contains six small balls of clay, which were discovered by
perforating the neck. They must necessarily have been intro
duced before the burning of the toy. Similar conceits were
common in Mexico and Peru, and were observed by Kotzebue
upon the Northwest Coast.

Among the minerals found in the mounds, mica is most abun
dant. It occurs both in the sacrificial and sepulchral mounds,
and seems to have been invested with a superstitious regard, and
associated with certain burial and religious rites. Some idea can
be formed of its abundance from the fact that bushels are some
times taken from a single mound. It is found of every variety —
the common or transparent, silvery or opaque, and graphic or
hieroglyphical varieties. Some specimens have a fine golden
tinge, resembling Dutch leaf. It is sometimes neatly cut into
ornamental figures, discs, scrolls, and oval plates, which seem to

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 335

have constituted ornaments for dresses. A quantity, cut into
the form of discs each a foot in diameter, was found in a mound
near Chillicothe ; the plates, which overlapped each other like
the tiles of a roof, being so arranged as to form a crescent, five
feet in diameter at the widest part, and upwards of twenty
feet long. Some fine specimens of the graphic variety, in thin
oval plates, were recently discovered in a mound near Lower
Sandusky. Ohio, which were supposed, by those who first ex
amined them, to bear indubitable hieroglyphics. A native
deposit of this variety occurs on the Schuylkill river, a few
miles above the city of Philadelphia. The mineral must be re
ferred to some primitive locality or localities, which it would be
interesting to identify ; for, by the identification, accurate or ap
proximate, of the original sources of the various foreign articles
found in the mounds, we are enabled to fix, with greater or less
certainty, the extent of the intercourse, if not in some degree
the direction of the migrations, of the ancient people.

It is in this view that the discovery of pearls and marine
shells in the mounds, is specially interesting. Of the latter, not
less than five kinds have been recognized ; viz., the cassis (several
varieties), the pyrula, perversa, oliva, marginella, and nalica.
These shells are all found on our Southern shores.* They

* Several of these shells, including the pyrula pet-versa and the cassis
cornutus, were discovered several years ago in a mound near Cincinnati,
and others near Lexington, Ky., which have since figured largely in most
speculations on American antiquities and the origin of the American
race. They were assumed to be peculiar to Asia ; and, as similar shells
were sacred to certain religious rites, or consecrated to certain gods of
the Hindoos, have been cited in support of the hypothesis that the
builders of the mounds had their origin in India. [See DelafielcTs In
quiry, Bradford's Researches, Laing's Polynesian Researches, &c. &c.]
This is but one of many instances in which an erroneous assumption has
been perpetuated by succeeding writers, each quoting from his prede
cessor without submitting his statements to a critical analysis. The
well-known fact that these shells occur in abundance on our Southern
shores, relieves them from the necessity to which they have heretofore
been subjected, of a transportation of twelve thousand miles, — ten thou
sand by sea, and two thousand by land !

THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

seem to have been chiefly used for ornamental purposes, and
hundreds of the marginella, pierced longitudinally so as to be
strung, are sometimes found accompanying a single skeleton.
Great numbers of beads worked from the compact portions of
some of the larger shells, are also found. These, generally much
altered by long exposure, were originally supposed to be ivory,
and their frequent discovery probably gave rise to the notion
that ivory is common in the mounds. It has been suggested
that many of them were worked from the columella of the
strombus gigas, which has been discovered in some of the an
cient graves of Tennessee. Quantities of pearls^ more or less
burned, have been found, but only upon the altars. They are
clearly not from the fresh water molluscas ; their numbers and
great size forbid the supposition. They are easily identified by
their concentric lamination. They are generally pierced for
beads, but some of the smaller ones, as will shortly appear, con
stituted the eyes of the ancient sculptures of animals and birds.
We must refer these to the same locality from whence the
shells above named were procured ; where, as we are informed
by the early writers, the Southern Indians carried on the pearl
fishery. It may be mentioned, in this connection, that the
teeth of the shark and alligator, bear, panther and wolf, and
the talons of rapacious birds, as also the fossil teeth of the
shark, — the latter most likely from the tertiary of the Lower
Mississippi, — have all been found in the mounds. Most of them
are perforated, and were probably used as ornaments or amulets,
but some seem designed as implements. Many large teeth, pro
bably cetacean, have been discovered ; not far from one hun
dred occurred in a single mound. They were all too much
burned to be recovered entire. One of the largest measured
six inches in length, and upwards of four inches in circumfer
ence at the largest part. They are destitute of enamel, and
have a pulp cavity, in this respect resembling those of the
whale, from which, however, they differ widely in shape. They
have not yet been identified. The mound-builders evidently

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 337

used them for various purposes, and some of the articles taken
for ivory may have been made from them. A specimen was
found which exhibited marks of having been sawn, drilled, and
polished. Accompanying them were several beautifully carved
cylinders of a compact substance resembling ivory ; one of
these was originally fourteen inches in length, and when found
was closely wrapped in sheet copper. Bones of the elk, deer,
etc., worked into the form of daggers, awls, etc., are of frequent
occurrence.

It is impossible here to indicate the great variety of the im
plements and ornaments of silver, copper, stone, &c. &c., found
in the mounds. Many of these are of a very interesting char
acter, as illustrating the state of ancient art, and as enabling
us, from the material of which they are composed, their pecu
liarities of form, and correspondences of use, to define the in
tercourse, and in some degree the connections, of the ancient
races. From what has already been presented, it will be seen
that there are gathered in the mounds, or the alluvions of the
Ohio, copper and silver from the Great Lakes ; pearls and
shells from the Southern Gulf; mica from the primitive ranges
of the Alleghanies, and obsidian from the volcanic ridges of
Mexico, — an extended range, the extremes of which define,
with great precision, the field in which the mounds occur. It
would almost seem that the ancient race existed contemporane
ously over this great area, maintaining throughout a constant
intercourse. BfinCTOlt ij|

There is one class of ancient remains which probably pos
sesses a greater popular interest than any other. These are the
sculptures or carvings in stone, of which a great variety occur
in the mounds. These display no inconsiderable degree of
taste and skill. They exhibit a close observance of nature, and
an attention to details, which we are unprepared to look for
among a people not considerably advanced in the arts, and to
which the elaborate and laborious, but usually clumsy and un
graceful productions of the savage, can claim but slight ap-

15

338 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

proach. Savage taste in sculpture is oftenest exhibited in
monstrosities, caricatures of things rather than faithful copies.
The carvings from the mounds, on the contrary, are remark
able for their truthfulness ; they display not only the general
form and features of the objects sought to be represented, but
to a surprising degree their characteristic expression and atti
tude. In some instances their very habits are indicated ; the
otter is represented securing a fish, so also is that inveterate
fisher, the heron, and the hawk hold s a small bird in his talons
and tears it with his beak. These representations are so exact
as to leave no doubt as to the animals designed to be exhibited.
Hardly a beast, bird, or reptile, indigenous to the country, is
omitted from the list. We identify the beaver, the otter, elk,
bear, wolf, panther, racoon, opossum, and squirrel ; the hawk,
heron, owl, vulture, raven, swallow, paroquet, duck, goose, and
numerous other varieties of land and water birds ; the alliga
tor, turtle, toad, frog, rattlesnake, etc. etc. Besides these there
are carvings of various animals and birds not indigenous to this
latitude ; for instance, the lamantin or manitus, and the tocan.
Several carvings, supposed to represent the manitus, have been
discovered, one of which is shown, of full size, in the following
engraving :

FIG. 75.

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 339

The engraving does not do full justice to the original, which
is exquisitely carved and polished, every feature being clearly
made out. The sculpture answers very well to the descriptions
of the manitus given by naturalists. It has the obtuse head
(not well shown in the engraving) ; thick, fleshy snout ; semi-
lunar nostrils ; tumid upper lip, furrowed in the middle ;
scarcely distinguishable ears ; the singular moustaches men
tioned by Desmoulin ; short, thick neck, and rudiinental paws,
or, as they were called by the Spaniards' hands. The general
form also corresponds with the descriptions given. But one of
the sculptures exhibits a flat, truncated tail ; the rest are round,
and rather long. There is a variety of the lamantin, however,
known as the round-tailed manitus, to which they may bear a
closer resemblance. This animal is only found in tropical re
gions ; it occurs, though rarely, on the Peninsula of Florida, and,
it is believed, nowhere else within the limits of the United
States. The inhabitants of San Christophers, Guadaloupe,
and other of the Barbadoes, formerly used it for food, and the
Southern Indians made use of its hide for thongs, and its bones
for implements. The sculptures of this last of animals or first
of fishes, are all of the same style of workmanship, and of like
materials, with an entire class of sculptures found in the
mounds. Consequently, either the same race of men, possessing
throughout a like mode of workmanship and deriving their ma
terials from the same sources, existed at the same period over
the intervening country, from the Ohio to the haunts of the
manitus on the Southern coast, and maintained a constant in
tercourse ; or else there was, at some time, a migration from
the South, bringing with it these characteristic remains of ano
ther region. We cannot conceive that these sculptures alone
are fanciful creations, bearing only an accidental resemblance
to the manitus, while the others accompanying them are faith
ful representations of objects generally easily recognizable.
It should be remarked, that the mound-builders seem to

340

THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

have been inveterate smokers, and that in the construction and
ornament of their pipes they displayed their utmost skill.
They are always carved from a single piece, and consist of a
flat, curved base of variable length and width, the bowl rising
from the convex side. From one of the ends, communicating
with the bowl, is drilled a small hole answering the purposes of
a tube ; the corresponding opposite division being left for the
manifest purpose of holding the implement to the mouth. The
bowls of these pipes are often sculptured into singular devices,
figures of the human head, of animals, birds, etc. etc., of which
examples are given in the " Ancient Monuments of the Mis
sissippi Valley," from Fig. 142, to Fig. 194, inclusive.

Of a very different character, and doubtless of a very differ
ent origin, is a class of sculptures of which the following cut,
Fig. 76, presents an example. It is carved from a dark-colored

FIG 76.

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 341

sandstone, and presents a human figure resting upon its knees
and elbows. The limbs, however, are barely indicated. The
figure is boldly though roughly carved, with the exception of
the face, which is better finished and quite characteristic. It
has peculiar markings, extending from the eyes diagonally
across the cheeks. A large serpent is folded around the neck ;
^he head and tail of the reptile resting together upon the
breast of the figure. The head is surmounted by a knot, re
sembling the " scalp-lock" of the Indians. It is six inches in
greatest length, five inches high, and has a broad, flat base. It
was ploughed up, some years since, near Chillicothe, Ohio.
Like the more delicate sculptures above referred to, it was
adapted for a pipe.

Several other specimens, closely resembling the one last de
scribed, have been found at various points upon the surface, but
none have been developed from the mounds. Both in material
and workmanship they sustain a close relationship to certain
" stone idols," as they have been termed, discovered in Virginia,
Tennessee, and elsewhere. The fact that no sculptures of this
description have been found in the mounds, and the compara
tive rudeness which they exhibit, induce the belief that they
belong to a different era, and are the work of another and a
ruder people.

A large proportion of the mound sculptures are executed in
a fine porphyry. It occurs of many shades of color ; some va
rieties have a greenish brown base, with fine white or black
grains ; others a light brown base, with white, purple, and
violet-tinged specks ; but most are red, with white and purplish
grounds. In some specimens the base exhibits scarcely any
admixture, and strongly resembles the Catlinile, or red pipe-
stone of the Coteau des Prairies. All the examples are of
great hardness ; a natural characteristic, or measurably the
result of the great heat to which they have been subjected.
Under heat this porphyry splinters, often in a nearly uniform
plane : and examples have been remarked, partly fused into a

L

342 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS

porous, dark brown mass. Heat has the effect of rendering the
specimens with a red base of a bright black ; and some of the
restored sculptures exhibit a striking contrast in the color of
their different parts. The primitive locality of this mineral is
unknown. * '..

All carvings from the mounds are exquisitely wrought ; and
in all cases where the material will admit of it, beautifully
polished. "We can scarcely understand how, in the absence of
instruments of iron, the carvings were executed. It may be
suggested that they were rubbed into shape upon hard rocks ;
but, apart from the incredible labor of such a process, and the
palpable impossibility of securing the delicate features which
some possess, by such means, we find some of the unfinished
specimens which show that, however the general outline was
secured, all the lines and more delicate features were cut or
graved in the stone. The copper tools, resembling gravers,
seem hardly adequate to this work, but they are the only in
struments discovered which appear at all adapted to the pur
pose.

The limits assigned to this resume prohibits any further ac
count of the remains found in the mounds. Those who wish
to pursue the subject, will find ample materials and illustration
in my work on the monuments of the West, so often referred
to in the preceding pages, and in my (in some respects supple
mentary) work on " The Serpent Symbol, and the Worship of
the Reciprocal Principles in America." What has already
been presented may serve to give some slight conception of the
general character of the ancient works of the West, if not of
their number. The relationship which they exhibit, in many
respects, to remains found elsewhere on the continent, will pro
bably be forcibly suggested to most minds, and may serve in a
degree to indicate, as has already been remarked, the depend
encies and intercourse, as well as illustrate the minor arts of
the ancient people. They should, however, be considered only
in connection with the other more imposing remains with which

OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 343

they are associated, as collateral aids in the solution of the
grand questions involved in the ancient history of man in
America.

There is a single point more, which, from a variety of causes,
has been invested with a special interest, and which it will not
be out of place to notice in this connection, viz. : the alleged
discovery in the mounds, of sculptured tablets, bearing hiero-
glyphical or alphabetical inscriptions. Nothing, to which it
would be possible to assign any such extraordinary character,
has been discovered by the author, in the course of his investi
gations ; nor does it seem likely that anything like an alpha
betical or hieroglyphical system existed among the mound-
builders. The earth-works and their contents certainly estab
lish that prior to the occupation of the Mississippi valley by the
tribes found in possession by the Europeans, there existed here
a numerous people, possessing a different social, and probably
a different civil organization, — an agricultural people, consider
ably advanced in the arts, and undoubtedly, in most respects,
superior to the hunter tribes with which we are acquainted.
There is no evidence, however, that their condition was any
thing more than a limited approximation to that attained by
the ancient Mexicans, Central Americans, and Peruvians,
which nations had made but the first advance toward an alpha
bet. Whether they had progressed further than to a refinement
on the picture-writing of the savage tribes, is not yet considered
established. It would be unwarrantable, therefore, to assign
to the race of the mounds, a superiority in this respect over
these nations, which were so much in advance of them in all
others. It would be a practical reversal of the philosophic
teachings of History, an exception to the laws of progress,
which it would require a large array of well-attested facts to
sustain. Such an array of facts we do not yet possess.